What is the fundamental definition of authoritarianism as a political system?

Authoritarianism is defined as a political system that rejects political plurality, employs strong central power to maintain the status quo, and reduces democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and the rule of law. This system can be autocratic or oligarchic and may be based on a dominant party or the military.

According to Juan Linz's influential 1964 definition, what are the four key qualities of an authoritarian regime?

Juan Linz identified four key qualities of authoritarian regimes: 1) limited political pluralism, with constraints on the legislature, political parties, and interest groups; 2) political legitimacy based on appeals to emotion and the regime's perceived necessity to combat societal problems like underdevelopment or insurgency; 3) minimal political mobilization and suppression of anti-regime activities; and 4) ill-defined executive powers that are often vague and shifting, used to expand executive authority.

How do authoritarian regimes typically differ from democratic regimes in terms of elections?

Authoritarian regimes frequently feature elections that are subject to fraud and extreme constraints on opposition participation. In contrast, democratic elections are generally inclusive, competitive, and fair, allowing for genuine alternation of power.

What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes authoritarianism from totalitarianism, according to common political science definitions?

While both are forms of autocracy, authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that authoritarian states maintain a distinction between state and society, allowing some degree of liberty in private life as long as political power is not contested. Totalitarianism, conversely, seeks to control and dominate every aspect of society and individual life.

How has the reliance on violence for control evolved in authoritarian regimes over time, according to a 2019 study?

A 2019 study by Sergei Guriev and Daniel Treisman indicates that authoritarian regimes have become less reliant on violence and mass repression. Instead, they increasingly resort to the manipulation of information to maintain control by creating an appearance of good performance, concealing repression, and imitating democratic practices.

What are some of the common hindrances to free and fair elections within authoritarian systems?

Hindrances to free and fair elections in authoritarian systems can include state control of the media, interference with opposition campaigning, electoral fraud, violence against opposition, excessive state spending favoring incumbents, selective permission for parties or candidates, prohibitions on opposition parties while allowing independent candidates, and allowing competition only among candidates within the incumbent party.

How do authoritarian regimes often utilize constitutions, and how do these differ from democratic constitutions?

Authoritarian regimes often adopt the institutional trappings of democracies, including constitutions, which can serve various roles such as an 'operating manual,' a 'billboard' signaling intent, a 'blueprint' for future plans, or 'window dressing' to obfuscate reality. Unlike democratic constitutions that set direct limits on executive authority, authoritarian constitutions may not impose such constraints, though they can sometimes function to protect elite property rights or constrain autocrats' behavior.

What is meant by 'competitive authoritarianism,' and how does it differ from fully authoritarian regimes?

Competitive authoritarianism describes civilian regimes where formal democratic institutions exist and are viewed as the primary means to gain power, but incumbents exploit state resources to gain a significant advantage over opponents. These regimes differ from fully authoritarian ones by holding regular elections, allowing opposition groups to operate openly without high risk of imprisonment, and possessing democratic procedures meaningful enough for opposition groups to contest for power.

What are the four factors identified by Andrew J. Nathan for the resilience of the Chinese Communist Party's authoritarian rule?

Andrew J. Nathan attributes the unusual resilience of the Chinese Communist Party's authoritarian rule to four factors: 1) increasingly norm-bound succession politics, 2) meritocratic considerations in promoting political elites, 3) differentiation and functional specialization of institutions within the regime, and 4) the establishment of institutions for political participation and appeal that strengthen the CCP's legitimacy among the public.

According to Milan Svolik, why is violence a common characteristic of authoritarian systems?

Milan Svolik argues that violence is common in authoritarian systems due to the absence of independent third parties empowered to settle disputes between the dictator, regime allies, soldiers, and the masses.

What are 'coup-proofing' strategies, and what are their potential consequences?

Coup-proofing strategies are measures authoritarian regimes implement to make it difficult for small groups to seize power. These include strategically placing loyalists in the military, creating parallel armed forces, and developing overlapping internal security agencies. While these strategies can reduce coup attempts and protests, they may also decrease military effectiveness and limit the rents an incumbent can extract.

How does authoritarian socialism, or 'socialism from above,' differ from other forms of socialism?

Authoritarian socialism, or socialism from above, supports socialist economics while rejecting political pluralism, multi-party politics, freedom of assembly, habeas corpus, and freedom of expression. This stance is often justified by the fear of counter-revolution or as a means to achieve socialist ends, distinguishing it from democratic socialism which upholds these principles.

What is 'libertarian authoritarianism,' and what factors are associated with its rise?

Libertarian authoritarianism is an ideology that opposes democracy and public institutions, defining freedom in terms of speech and actions that promote homophobia, white supremacy, and male privilege. Its rise is linked to neoliberalism, backlash against pandemic containment measures, and a general hostility towards democracy, often fueled by post-truth politics and conspiracy theories.

How did the trend of authoritarianism change globally from the mid-1970s to the year 2000?

The share of authoritarian states in the international political system increased until the mid-1970s, after which it declined until the year 2000.

What is the typical pathway for dictatorships to begin since 2000, compared to before 2000?

Prior to 2000, dictatorships commonly began with a coup d'état that replaced a pre-existing authoritarian regime. Since 2000, dictatorships are more frequently established through democratic backsliding, where a democratically elected leader transitions the country into an authoritarian state.

What is the significance of 'limited pluralism' in Linz's definition of authoritarianism?

Limited political pluralism, as defined by Juan Linz, is a key characteristic of authoritarianism where constraints are placed on the legislature, political parties, and interest groups, preventing the full spectrum of political expression and organization found in democracies.

How do authoritarian regimes use 'political parties' differently from democratic regimes?

While both may have political parties, authoritarian regimes often use them to mobilize support for the regime's goals and entrench authoritarian rule, sometimes through non-competitive or fraudulent elections, rather than facilitating genuine political competition and representation.

What is the concept of 'hybrid regimes' or 'competitive authoritarian' states?

Hybrid regimes, also known as 'hybrid democracies' or 'competitive authoritarian' states, are characterized by a blurred boundary between democracy and authoritarianism, where formal democratic institutions exist but incumbents heavily abuse state power to gain an advantage.

What is the primary goal of 'political repression' in authoritarian systems?

Political repression in authoritarian systems is used to maintain highly concentrated and centralized government power by excluding potential challengers and suppressing dissent, thereby preserving the political status quo.

How does 'economic development' influence the likelihood of democratization, according to various scholars?

Scholars like Seymour Lipset suggest that economic development tends to increase the probability of democratization. However, others, like Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, argue that while development might make democracies more stable, it doesn't necessarily cause authoritarian states to democratize.

What is the significance of 'indefinite political tenure' in authoritarian regimes?

Indefinite political tenure refers to the ruler or ruling party maintaining power without a fixed term or accountability to citizens' free choice, often seen in one-party states, which is a hallmark of authoritarianism.

What is the role of 'propaganda' in authoritarian regimes, and what are scholars' views on its effectiveness?

Authoritarian regimes invest significantly in propaganda, believing it enhances survival by creating an appearance of good performance and concealing repression. However, scholarly views on its effectiveness are mixed, with some studies suggesting it can be a key control mechanism.

What does 'political passivity and civic disengagement' signify in relation to authoritarianism?

Political passivity and civic disengagement are considered key features of authoritarianism, where citizens are discouraged or prevented from actively participating in politics, contrasting with totalitarianism's reliance on mass mobilization and ideological conformity.

How do authoritarian regimes use 'social control' to maintain their power?

Authoritarian regimes employ a range of social controls to stifle civil society, aiming to maintain political stability. This often involves indoctrination and socialization processes to create allegiance to the regime, alongside control over armed forces and bureaucracy.

What is the relationship between 'nationalism' and authoritarianism?

While not exclusively tied to authoritarianism, nationalism can be a tool used by authoritarian regimes to foster unity, legitimize their rule, and rally support by emphasizing national identity and often portraying external or internal threats.

What is the 'Arab Winter' in the context of the Arab Spring and authoritarianism?

The Arab Winter refers to the period following the Arab Spring uprisings, where many countries that overthrew autocracies failed to transition to enduring democratization. Instead, some, like Libya, Syria, and Yemen, descended into civil wars, while others, like Egypt, reverted to military-run authoritarian states, indicating a resurgence of authoritarianism in the region.

What is the significance of 'civil liberties' in the context of authoritarianism?

Authoritarianism is marked by reductions in civil liberties, such as freedom of religion, and the arbitrary deprivation of these rights, which are essential for individual freedom and democratic participation.

How does the 'Vargas Era' in Argentina relate to authoritarianism?

The Vargas Era in Argentina, from 1946 to 1955, is cited as a historical example of authoritarian rule under Juan Perón and the Justicialist Party, characterized by centralized power and control.

What is the 'Porfiriato' in Mexican history?

The Porfiriato refers to the period of authoritarian rule in Mexico from 1876 to 1911, dominated by Porfirio Díaz, characterized by centralized power, economic modernization, and suppression of political opposition.

What is the '6 January Dictatorship' in Yugoslavia?

The 6 January Dictatorship refers to the period in Yugoslavia from 1929 to 1934 when King Alexander I suspended the constitution and ruled autocratically, establishing a centralized government that suppressed political pluralism.

What is the significance of the 'Reign of Terror' in France in relation to authoritarianism?

The Reign of Terror in France (1793-1794), led by the Committee of Public Safety under Maximilien Robespierre, is considered an example of authoritarian rule during the French Revolution, characterized by extreme political repression and centralized control.

What is the 'New Order' in Indonesian political history?

The New Order was a period of authoritarian rule in Indonesia from 1966 to 1998, primarily under President Suharto, characterized by centralized control, suppression of dissent, and a focus on economic development and political stability.

What is the relationship between 'economic development' and democratization according to various scholars?

Scholars like Seymour Lipset suggest that economic development tends to increase the probability of democratization. However, others, like Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, argue that while development might make democracies more stable, it doesn't necessarily cause authoritarian states to democratize.

What is the significance of 'civil liberties' in the context of authoritarianism?

Authoritarianism is marked by reductions in civil liberties, such as freedom of religion, and the arbitrary deprivation of these rights, which are essential for individual freedom and democratic participation.

How does the 'Vargas Era' in Brazil relate to authoritarianism?

The Vargas Era in Brazil (1937-1945) refers to the period when Getúlio Vargas ruled as a dictator, establishing an authoritarian regime that centralized power and implemented significant social and economic reforms.

What is the 'Beijing Consensus' in the context of the spread of authoritarianism?

The Beijing Consensus refers to the authoritarian model of governance exemplified by the People's Republic of China, which has been seen as a successful alternative to liberal democracy and has influenced the resurgence of authoritarianism globally.

What is the role of 'political legitimacy' in authoritarian regimes, according to Linz?

According to Juan Linz, political legitimacy in authoritarian regimes is often based on appeals to emotion and the idea that the regime is a necessary evil to combat societal problems like underdevelopment or insurgency, rather than deriving legitimacy from popular consent or democratic processes.

How do authoritarian regimes use 'political repression' to maintain power?

Political repression is a key characteristic of authoritarianism, used to maintain highly concentrated and centralized government power by excluding potential challengers and suppressing dissent, thereby preserving the political status quo.

What is the difference between 'autocracy' and 'authoritarianism' as political terms?

An autocracy is a state where one person possesses unlimited power. Authoritarianism is a broader political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality and strong central power, which can be autocratic or oligarchic.

What is the significance of 'ill-defined executive powers' in authoritarian regimes?

Ill-defined executive powers, often vague and shifting, are used by authoritarian regimes to extend the power of the executive, allowing for more arbitrary and centralized control without clear constitutional limits.

What is the relationship between 'authoritarian socialism' and 'socialism from above'?

Authoritarian socialism is also referred to as 'socialism from above,' and it describes an economic and political system that supports socialist economics while rejecting political pluralism and liberal democratic concepts.

What does 'democratic backsliding' mean in relation to authoritarianism?

Democratic backsliding refers to the process where a democratically elected leader or government gradually establishes an authoritarian regime, effectively eroding democratic norms and institutions.

How do authoritarian regimes use 'mass organizations' as a characteristic?

Authoritarianism is characterized by the use of political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime, often alongside concentrated government power and political repression.

What is the role of 'ideology' in distinguishing totalitarianism from authoritarianism?

Totalitarian regimes are characterized by an official, guiding ideology that seeks to transform society and human nature, whereas authoritarian regimes typically lack such a comprehensive ideology, focusing more on maintaining the status quo and personal power.

What are the implications of 'democratic backsliding' for a country's political system?

Democratic backsliding signifies a decline in democratic quality or a transition from democracy to a more authoritarian system, often involving the erosion of civil liberties, the weakening of checks and balances, and the concentration of power in the executive.

What is the significance of 'political mobilization' in the context of authoritarianism?

Political mobilization in authoritarianism refers to the process of engaging the population around the regime's goals, often through political parties and mass organizations. However, it is typically characterized by minimal mobilization and the suppression of anti-regime activities to maintain the existing power structure.

How do authoritarian regimes use 'constitutions' differently from democratic regimes?

Authoritarian regimes may adopt constitutions as 'window dressing' or 'operating manuals' to legitimize their rule, rather than as instruments to limit executive power, unlike democratic constitutions which are designed to constrain government authority.

What is the relationship between 'authoritarianism' and 'fascism'?

Authoritarianism is considered a core concept of fascism, meaning that a fascist regime is fundamentally an authoritarian form of government, although not all authoritarian regimes are fascist.

What is the 'dictator's dilemma' as it relates to information and repression?

The dictator's dilemma refers to the challenge faced by dictators in balancing the need for information about public and elite loyalty with the risk that providing such information can empower potential rivals, influencing their reliance on repression and information control.

What is the significance of 'rule of law' in the context of authoritarianism?

Authoritarianism involves reductions in the rule of law, meaning laws are often applied arbitrarily and inconsistently, particularly to suppress opposition, whereas democratic systems uphold the rule of law as a fundamental principle for governing and protecting citizens' rights.

What is the 'Arab Winter' in the context of the Arab Spring and authoritarianism?

The Arab Winter refers to the period following the Arab Spring uprisings, where many countries that overthrew autocracies failed to transition to enduring democratization, instead experiencing civil wars or reverting to authoritarian states, indicating a resurgence of authoritarianism in the region.

Authoritarianism Wiki: Authoritarianism Unveiled: Structures of Power and Control

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Defining Authoritarianism

Core Principles

Authoritarianism is a political system defined by its rejection of political pluralism. It employs strong central power to maintain the existing political status quo, significantly curtailing democracy, the separation of powers, civil liberties, and the rule of law.¹² Such regimes can be autocratic or oligarchic, often relying on a dominant political party or military leadership.³⁴ Systems exhibiting a blend of democratic and authoritarian traits are frequently categorized as "hybrid regimes" or "competitive authoritarian" states.⁵⁶⁷

Historical Trajectory

Globally, the prevalence of authoritarian states increased until the mid-1970s. Subsequently, their numbers declined until the year 2000. Since then, a notable trend has emerged where democratically elected leaders transition their states towards authoritarian rule, a phenomenon termed "democratic backsliding."¹⁷¹⁸

Linz's Framework

Political scientist Juan Linz identified four key characteristics of authoritarian regimes in his seminal 1964 work, An Authoritarian Regime: Spain:⁸

Limited Pluralism: Constraints are imposed on legislative bodies, political parties, and interest groups.
Legitimacy Basis: Regimes derive legitimacy from appeals to emotion and are presented as a necessary evil to combat societal problems like underdevelopment or insurgency.
Minimal Mobilization: Political mobilization is kept to a minimum, with anti-regime activities actively suppressed.
Vague Executive Powers: Executive authority is often ill-defined, shifting, and utilized to expand the leader's power.

Broadly defined, authoritarian states lack free and competitive elections for executives or legislatures, or both.¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴ They often disregard human rights, such as freedom of religion, and do not permit the alternation of power through free elections.¹⁵ While sometimes maintaining nominal democratic institutions, these are managed to entrench authoritarian rule, often through fraudulent or non-competitive elections.¹⁶

Defining Characteristics

Centralized Power & Repression

Authoritarianism is marked by highly concentrated and centralized government power. This power is maintained through political repression and the exclusion of potential challengers, often utilizing armed force. Regimes may employ political parties and mass organizations to mobilize support for state objectives.¹⁹ Political stability is often secured through control over and support from the armed forces, a bureaucracy loyal to the regime, and the cultivation of allegiance via socialization and indoctrination.¹⁹

Informal Power & Limited Opposition

These systems often embrace the informal and unregulated exercise of political power. Leadership is typically self-appointed and not subject to displacement by citizens through competitive elections. There is minimal tolerance for meaningful opposition, and civil liberties are subject to arbitrary deprivation.¹⁹ Social controls are frequently implemented to stifle civil society.¹⁹ Political scientists Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart identify authoritarian tendencies in politicians and parties by observing values such as security, conformity, and obedience.²¹

Indefinite Tenure & Legitimacy

A key feature is the "indefinite political tenure" of the ruler or ruling party, often manifested in a one-party state.¹⁹ Adam Przeworski theorized that authoritarian equilibrium is sustained primarily through deception, fear, and economic prosperity.²⁰ The transition towards democracy is known as democratization.¹⁹

Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes

Functional Roles

Authoritarian regimes frequently adopt the institutional forms of democracies, including constitutions. These documents can serve multiple purposes: as an "operating manual" for government functioning, a "billboard" signaling regime intentions, a "blueprint" for future plans, or "window dressing" to mask the absence of freedoms.²²²³

Consolidation and Control

Authoritarian constitutions can legitimize, strengthen, and consolidate regimes. They may help coordinate government actions and manage public expectations, thereby reinforcing the regime's hold on power.²⁴²⁵ While not directly limiting executive authority as in democracies, some authoritarian constitutions may offer elites protection for their property rights or provide constraints on autocratic behavior.²⁶

Authoritarian Constitutionalism

Legal scholar Mark Tushnet conceptualized "authoritarian constitutionalism," distinguishing it from liberal constitutionalism and purely authoritarian systems. He describes regimes that are authoritarian dominant-party states, impose sanctions on dissidents without arbitrary arrest, allow reasonably open policy discussion, hold elections that are free and fair but managed to ensure incumbent victory, show occasional responsiveness to public opinion, and maintain mechanisms to control dissent levels.²⁸ Singapore is cited as an example, linking the concept to hybrid regimes.²⁸

Contemporary Authoritarian Regimes

Current Examples

The following table lists states frequently characterized as authoritarian, based on assessments from organizations like Freedom House and the V-Dem Institute, indicating a lack of democratic freedoms or significant authoritarian governance.

State	Time period	Ruling group or person	Notes and references
Afghanistan	1996–2001; 2021–	Taliban	Totalitarian theocratic state.^[29]
Angola	1975–	MPLA	^[30]
Azerbaijan	1993–	New Azerbaijan Party	^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35]^[36]
Bahrain	1783–	House of Khalifa	^[37]
Belarus	1994–	Alexander Lukashenko	^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]
Burundi	2005–	CNDD–FDD	^[43]
Republic of the Congo	1969–1992; 1997–	Congolese Party of Labour	^[50]
Cuba	1959–	Castrism	^[51]
Djibouti	1977–	People's Rally for Progress	^[52]^[53]
Egypt	2014–	Abdel Fattah el-Sisi	^[54]
El Salvador	2019–	Nayib Bukele	^[55]^[56]
Equatorial Guinea	1979–	Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo	^[57]
Eritrea	1993–^a	Isaias Afwerki	Eritrea is considered a totalitarian dictatorship.^[58]
Eswatini	1968–	House of Dlamini	^[59]
Ethiopia	2018–	Abiy Ahmed	Abiy Ahmed and his party considered "authoritarian" by some activists and dissidents.^[60] He is considered by some a "charming dictator".^[61]^[62]
Hong Kong (Special administrative region of People's Republic of China)	2020–	Pro-Beijing camp (Hong Kong)	Since the enactment of the Hong Kong National Security Law, the Hong Kong government has cracked down on pro-democracy activists, politicians, and news outlets, seen as a sign of rising authoritarianism.^[63]^[64]^[65]
Hungary	2010–	Fidesz	^[66]^[67]
Iran	1979–	Assembly of Experts	Post-revolution, Iran became a totalitarian clerical state based on the Supreme Leader's authority. It combines ideological elements of totalitarianism with limited pluralism and holds elections where differing candidates can be defeated.^[68]^[69]^[70]
Israel	1996–1999; 2009–2021; 2022–	Benjamin Netanyahu and Likud	While self-proclaimed as the "only democracy in the Middle East," its treatment of Palestine is considered strictly authoritarian, including prohibitions on commemorating the Nakba.^[71]^[72]^[73]^[74]
Jordan	1946–	Hashemites	^[75]
Laos	1975–	Lao People's Revolutionary Party	^[76]
Morocco	1957–	Alaouite dynasty	^[75]^[77]^[78]
Mozambique	1975–	FRELIMO	^[79]
Myanmar	1962–	Tatmadaw	The Tatmadaw allowed a democratically elected administration from 2016 to 2021, without granting civilian control of the military.^[80]
Nicaragua	1979–1990; 2007–	Daniel Ortega	^[81]^[82]
North Korea	1949–	Workers' Party of Korea under Kim Dynasty	Considered by some scholars to be the most totalitarian country.^[83]^[84]
Oman	1970–	House of Al Said	^[85]
Palestine	1964–	Palestine Liberation Organization	^[86]
Qatar	1971–	House of Thani	^[87]
Russia	2000–	Vladimir Putin	^[88]^[89]^[90]^[91]^[92]^[93]
Rwanda	2000–	Paul Kagame	^[94]
Saudi Arabia	1934–	House of Saud	^[95]
Singapore	1965–	People's Action Party	Dominant-party system.^[96]^[97]
South Sudan	2011–	Sudan People's Liberation Movement under Salva Kiir Mayardit	^[98]
Republika Srpska (part of Bosnia and Herzegovina)	2006–	Milorad Dodik	^[99]^[100]^[101]
Sudan	2021–	Abdel Fattah al-Burhan	Failed state in a power vacuum.^[102]
Tajikistan	1994–	Emomali Rahmon	^[103]
Togo	1967–	Eyadema Family	^[104]
Tunisia	2019–	Kais Said	See also 2019 Tunisian presidential election.
Turkey	2003–	Justice and Development Party under Recep Tayyip Erdoğan	Described by observers as a "competitive authoritarian regime."^[105]
Turkmenistan	2006–	Berdimuhamedow Family	Effectively a totalitarian hereditary dictatorship.^[106]^[107]
United Arab Emirates	1971–	Royal families of the United Arab Emirates	^[108]^[109]
Uganda	1986–	Yoweri Museveni	^[110]
Uzbekistan	1989–	Uzbekistan Liberal Democratic Party	^[111]^[112]^[113]
Venezuela	1999–	Chavismo	^[114]
Vietnam	1976–	Vietnamese Communist Party	^[115]
Zimbabwe	1980–	ZANU-PF	^[116]^[117]

Historical Authoritarian Regimes

Historical Examples

The following table provides a non-exhaustive list of states historically characterized by authoritarian rule.

State	Time period	Ruling group or person	Notes and references
Algeria	1999–2019	Abdelaziz Bouteflika	^[118]
Argentina	1946–1955	Justicialist Party under Juan Perón	See also Peronism.^[119]^[120]
	1966–1973	Military government	See also the Argentine Revolution.^[119]^[120]
	1973–1976	Justicialist Party under Juan and Isabel Perón	^[119]^[120]
	1976–1983	Jorge Rafael Videla	See also the National Reorganization Process.^[119]^[120]
Austria	1933–1938	Christian Social Party under Engelbert Dollfuß and Fatherland Front under Kurt Schuschnigg	See also the Federal State of Austria and Ständestaat.
Bangladesh	2009-2024	Awami League under Sheikh Hasina	^[121]
Brazil	1937–1945	Getúlio Vargas	See also the Vargas Era.^[122]
Brazil	1964–1985	Military dictatorship in Brazil	Started with the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état.^[122]
Burma	1962–2011	Military government and the Burma Socialist Programme Party	Started with the 1962 Burmese coup d'état and ended with the 2011–2012 Burmese political reforms.^[123]
Burundi	1961–1993	UPRONA	^{[citation needed]}
Confederate States of America	1861–1865	Jefferson Davis	Herrenvolk republic with a "democracy of the white race".^[124]^[125]
Chad	1982–1990	Hissène Habré	Habré was deposed by Idriss Déby; he was tried in Senegal for crimes against his country and died in prison months after the man who removed him from power died in combat.
Chile	1973–1990	Government Junta under Augusto Pinochet	Started with the 1973 Chilean coup d'état.^[126]
Republic of China (1912–1949)	1927–1949	Kuomintang and Nationalist government under Chiang Kai-shek	The Republic of China on Taiwan is listed further below.
Democratic Republic of the Congo	1997–2019	Laurent-Désiré Kabila and Joseph Kabila	Zaire is listed further below.^[127]
Croatia	1941–1945	Ustaše under Ante Pavelić	See also Independent State of Croatia
Croatia	1990–1999	Croatian Democratic Union under Franjo Tuđman	^[128]^[129]
Czechoslovakia	1938–1939	Party of National Unity	^{[citation needed]}
Egypt	1952–2011	Gamal Abdel Nasser, Anwar Sadat, and Hosni Mubarak	^[130]
Equatorial Guinea	1968–1979	Francisco Macias Nguema	^{[citation needed]}
Ethiopia	1974–1991	Mengistu Haile Mariam and the Workers' Party of Ethiopia	^[131]
Ethiopia	1991–2019	Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front	^[132]
Fiji	2006–2022	FijiFirst^b	^[133]^[134]^[135]^[136]
France	1793–1794	Committee of Public Safety, under Maximilien Robespierre	See also the French Revolution.
Gabon	1961–2023	Gabonese Democratic Party	Ali Bongo was overthrown in a military coup.
Gambia	1994–2017	Yahya Jammeh	Jammeh was overthrown by democratic elections and forced to resign.
Nazi Germany	1933–1945	National Socialist German Workers' Party	See also Nazism.
Guinea	1958–2021	Ahmed Sekou Touré, Lansana Conté, Moussa Dadis Camara and Alpha Condé	Guinea was marked by a series of authoritarian generations.
Guinea-Bissau	1980–1999	João Bernardo Vieira	Nino Vieira governed authoritatively in the 80s and 90s until his overthrow; he returned to the presidency in 2005 until his assassination in 2009.
Hungary	1920–1944	Miklós Horthy and the Unity Party	^[137]
Indonesia	1959–1998	Sukarno and Suharto	See also the Guided Democracy era and the New Order.
Iran	1925–1979	Pahlavi dynasty	^[138]
Iraq	1968–2003	Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region under Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and Saddam Hussein
Empire of Japan	1931-1945	Hirohito and the Imperial Rule Assistance Association
Liberia	1886–1980	True Whig Party	Party that ruled Liberia for over 100 years; monopoly overthrown by the 1980 Liberian coup.
Liberia	1980–1990	Samuel Doe	The Liberian president was captured and executed during a civil war.
Fascist Italy	1922–1943	National Fascist Party	^[139]
Kazakhstan	1990–2022	Amanat (formerly Nur Otan)	The incumbent president Kassym-Jomart Tokayev renounced party membership, establishing amendments that prohibit presidents from affiliating with any party.^[46]
Libya	1969–2011	Muammar Gaddafi	Started with the 1969 Libyan coup d'état and ended with the 2011 Libyan Civil War.^[140]
Lithuania	1926–1940	Antanas Smetona	Ended in the Soviet occupation.^[141]
North Macedonia	2006–2016	Nikola Gruevski	^[142]^[143]
Mali	1968–1991	Moussa Traoré	Moussa was deposed in the 1991 Malian coup d'état and sentenced to death twice, exonerated in May 2002.
Massachusetts Bay Colony	1630–1691	John Winthrop	^[144]^[145]
Mexico	17 May–4 June 1833	Santa Anna
	18 June–5 July 1833
	27 October–December 1833
	1834–1835
	20 March–10 July 1839
	1841–1842
	14 May–6 September 1843
	4 June–12 September 1844
	21 March–2 April 1847
	20 May–15 September 1847
	1853–1855
	1876–1911	Porfirio Díaz, Juan Méndez, and Manuel Flores.	See also Porfiriato.
	1929–2000	PRI	Mexico was highly authoritarian under PRI rule for ~70 years, losing power in 2000 but regaining it in 2012 before losing again in 2018. See also Tlatelolco massacre and the rigged 1988 Mexican general election.
Ottoman Empire	1878–1908	Abdul Hamid II
Ottoman Empire	1913–1918	The Three Pashas
Montenegro	1990–2023	Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro, under Milo Đukanović	^[146]^[147]^[148]^[149]^[150]
Nicaragua	1936–1979	Somoza Family	The Somoza clan lost power in the Sandinista revolution.
Paraguay	1954-1989	Alfredo Stroessner	Ended with 1989 Paraguayan coup d'état. Stroessner's Colorado party continues to dominate Paraguayan politics.
Philippines	1965–1986	Ferdinand Marcos	Marcos expanded powers using martial law. Ended with the People Power Revolution.
Philippines	2016–2022	Rodrigo Duterte	^[151]^[152]
Poland	1926–1939	Sanation	See also the May Coup.
Portugal	1926–1933	Military government	See also the National Dictatorship.
Portugal	1933–1974	Estado Novo regime under António de Oliveira Salazar and Marcelo Caetano	Ended with the Carnation Revolution.^[153]
Russian State	1918–1920	White movement under Alexander Kolchak
Rwanda	1961–1994	Gregoire Kayibanda and Juvenal Habyarimana
Zaire	1965–1997	Mobutu Sese Seko	The Democratic Republic of the Congo after 1997 is listed above.^[127]
Poland	1926–1939	Sanation	See also the May Coup.
Portugal	1926–1933	Military government	See also the National Dictatorship.
Turkmenistan	1991–2006	Democratic Party of Turkmenistan under Saparmurat Niyazov	Effectively a totalitarian dictatorship.^[106]^[107]
Soviet Union	1922–1991	Communist Party of the Soviet Union	See also authoritarian socialism.
Syria	1963–2024	Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region under al-Assad family	Totalitarian police state^[167]^[168]^[161] under a hereditary dictatorship
Ukraine	1992–2005	Leonid Kuchma	Ended in the Orange Revolution.^{[according to whom?]}.
1992–2005	Leonid Kuchma	Ended in the Orange Revolution.^{[according to whom?]}.
2010–2014	Party of Regions under Viktor Yanukovych	Ended in the Revolution of Dignity.^{[according to whom?]}.
Ukrainian State	1918	Pavlo Skoropadskyi	Started with the 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état and ended with the Anti-Hetman Uprising.
Uganda	1971-1979	Idi Amin Dada
Yugoslavia	1929–1934	Alexander I and the JRSD	See also the 6 January Dictatorship.
	1934–1941	Milan Stojadinović and the JRZ
	1944–1990	League of Communists of Yugoslavia under Josip Broz Tito (–1980)	See also the death and state funeral of Josip Broz Tito.^[169]^[170]
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	1992–2000	Socialist Party of Serbia under Slobodan Milošević	See also the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević.^[171]^[172]
Syria	1963–2024	Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region under al-Assad family	Totalitarian police state^[167]^[168]^[161] under a hereditary dictatorship
Taiwan	1945–1987	Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek and Chiang Ching-kuo	The Republic of China (1927–1949) is listed further above.^[162]
Thailand	1948–1957	Plaek Phibunsongkhram	Ended with the 1957 Thai coup d'état.
	1958–1973	Sarit Thanarat and Thanom Kittikachorn	Ended with the 1973 Thai popular uprising.
	2014–2023	Prayut Chan-o-cha	^[163]
	2019–2024	Senate	The 250-member Senate, appointed by the military junta, holds significant power, including approving Prime Ministers. The House of Representatives is often influenced by the Senate. In the 2023 election, the Move Forward Party won the most votes, but their leader Pita Limjaroenrat was rejected as Prime Minister by the Senate.^[164]
Tunisia	1987–2011	Zine El Abidine Ben Ali	See also Tunisian Revolution.
Turkey	1923–1950	Republican People's Party	^[165]^[166]
Turkmenistan	1991–2006	Democratic Party of Turkmenistan under Saparmurat Niyazov	Effectively a totalitarian dictatorship.^[106]^[107]
Soviet Union	1922–1991	Communist Party of the Soviet Union	See also authoritarian socialism.
Syria	1963–2024	Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region under al-Assad family	Totalitarian police state^[167]^[168]^[161] under a hereditary dictatorship
Ukraine	1992–2005	Leonid Kuchma	Ended in the Orange Revolution.^{[according to whom?]}.
2010–2014	Party of Regions under Viktor Yanukovych	Ended in the Revolution of Dignity.^{[according to whom?]}.
Ukrainian State	1918	Pavlo Skoropadskyi	Started with the 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état and ended with the Anti-Hetman Uprising.
Uganda	1971-1979	Idi Amin Dada
Yugoslavia	1929–1934	Alexander I and the JRSD	See also the 6 January Dictatorship.
	1934–1941	Milan Stojadinović and the JRZ
	1944–1990	League of Communists of Yugoslavia under Josip Broz Tito (–1980)	See also the death and state funeral of Josip Broz Tito.^[169]^[170]
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	1992–2000	Socialist Party of Serbia under Slobodan Milošević	See also the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević.^[171]^[172]
Syria	1963–2024	Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region under al-Assad family	Totalitarian police state^[167]^[168]^[161] under a hereditary dictatorship
Ukraine	1992–2005	Leonid Kuchma	Ended in the Orange Revolution.^{[according to whom?]}.
2010–2014	Party of Regions under Viktor Yanukovych	Ended in the Revolution of Dignity.^{[according to whom?]}.
Ukrainian State	1918	Pavlo Skoropadskyi	Started with the 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état and ended with the Anti-Hetman Uprising.
Uganda	1971-1979	Idi Amin Dada
Yugoslavia	1929–1934	Alexander I and the JRSD	See also the 6 January Dictatorship.
	1934–1941	Milan Stojadinović and the JRZ
	1944–1990	League of Communists of Yugoslavia under Josip Broz Tito (–1980)	See also the death and state funeral of Josip Broz Tito.^[169]^[170]
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	1992–2000	Socialist Party of Serbia under Slobodan Milošević	See also the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević.^[171]^[172]
Syria	1963–2024	Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region under al-Assad family	Totalitarian police state^[167]^[168]^[161] under a hereditary dictatorship
Ukraine	1992–2005	Leonid Kuchma	Ended in the Orange Revolution.^{[according to whom?]}.
2010–2014	Party of Regions under Viktor Yanukovych	Ended in the Revolution of Dignity.^{[according to whom?]}.
Ukrainian State	1918	Pavlo Skoropadskyi	Started with the 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état and ended with the Anti-Hetman Uprising.
Uganda	1971-1979	Idi Amin Dada
Yugoslavia	1929–1934	Alexander I and the JRSD	See also the 6 January Dictatorship.
	1934–1941	Milan Stojadinović and the JRZ
	1944–1990	League of Communists of Yugoslavia under Josip Broz Tito (–1980)	See also the death and state funeral of Josip Broz Tito.^[169]^[170]
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	1992–2000	Socialist Party of Serbia under Slobodan Milošević	See also the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević.^[171]^[172]

Economic Considerations

Development and Democracy

Scholars like Seymour Lipset, Carles Boix, Susan Stokes, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Stephens, and John Stephens suggest that economic development increases the likelihood of democratization. However, Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi argue that while development makes democracies more resilient to authoritarian reversal, it does not necessarily cause democratization.¹⁷³¹⁷⁴¹⁷⁵¹⁷⁶

Elites, Labor, and Development

Eva Bellin posits that the bourgeoisie and labor movements may favor democratization under certain circumstances. Economic development can, in the short to medium term, bolster public support for authoritarian regimes.¹⁷⁷¹⁷⁸ Michael Albertus notes that authoritarian regimes often implement land reforms but subsequently withhold property rights from beneficiaries to gain coercive leverage over rural populations.¹⁷⁹

Institutional Frameworks

Mimicking Democracy

Authoritarian regimes often adopt institutional structures similar to democracies, such as legislatures and judiciaries. However, these institutions serve to reinforce authoritarian power rather than ensure economic development or individual freedom.¹⁸⁰¹⁸¹ Authoritarian legislatures can function as platforms for leaders to enhance support, share power, and monitor elites.¹⁸² Party systems in these regimes tend to be unstable and underdeveloped due to monopolistic authority patterns.¹⁸³

Elections and Control

A key distinction lies in elections. Democratic elections are typically inclusive, competitive, and fair, with leaders acting on behalf of the general will. Authoritarian elections, conversely, are often marred by fraud and severe restrictions on opposition participation.¹⁸³¹⁸⁴ Autocratic leaders may resort to violence against opposition or manipulate election monitors to secure victory.¹⁸⁰¹⁸⁰¹⁸⁰¹⁸⁷ The increasing adoption of electoral processes by authoritarian regimes, including multi-party systems, serves to project an image of legitimacy, attract foreign aid, and monitor public sentiment.¹⁸⁰¹⁸⁸

Hindrances to Fair Elections

Obstacles to free and fair elections in authoritarian systems commonly include:

State control over media.
Interference with opposition campaigning.
Electoral fraud.
Violence against opposition figures.
Excessive state spending favoring incumbents.
Selective party bans or permissions.
Prohibitions on opposition parties but allowance for independent candidates.
Allowing competition only within the incumbent party.

These tactics ensure that elections, even when held, heavily favor the ruling regime.¹⁸⁹

Elite and Mass Interactions

Balancing Power

Stable authoritarian rule hinges on preventing contestation from both the masses and other elites. Regimes employ co-optation and repression (the "carrots and sticks" approach) to deter revolts.¹⁹¹¹⁹² The ruler must maintain the support of other elites, often through resource distribution, while also securing public support through similar means. An imbalance in this strategy risks a coup by elites or an uprising by the populace.¹⁹³¹⁹⁴

Information Manipulation

Control Through Narrative

Research by Sergei Guriev and Daniel Treisman indicates a shift in authoritarian control strategies. Regimes increasingly rely on manipulating information rather than overt violence or mass repression. This involves crafting an appearance of good performance, concealing state repression, and imitating democratic practices.¹⁹⁵

Propaganda's Effectiveness

While authoritarian regimes invest heavily in propaganda, believing it enhances survival, scholarly views on its effectiveness remain mixed.¹⁹⁶

Systemic Weakness and Resilience

Inherent Fragility

Andrew J. Nathan highlights the inherent fragility of authoritarian systems due to weak legitimacy, over-reliance on coercion, excessive centralization, and the dominance of personal power over institutional norms. Consequently, orderly successions are rare.¹⁹⁷

Vulnerability to Collapse

Theodore M. Vestal argues that authoritarian systems can be weakened by failing to adequately address popular or elite demands. Responding to challenges with tighter control, rather than adaptation, can erode regime legitimacy and precipitate collapse.¹⁹

Resistance

Protest movements, such as anarchist demonstrations advocating against authoritarian rule, represent a form of societal resilience and opposition.

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References

Eritrea gained de facto independence in 1991; de jure independence was achieved in 1993.

Theodore M. Vesta, Ethiopia: A Post-Cold War African State. Greenwood, 1999, p. 17.

Michael Albertus & Victor Menaldo, "The Political Economy of Autocratic Constitutions", in Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes (eds. Tom Ginsburg & Alberto Simpser: Cambridge University Press, 2014), p. 80.

Tom Ginsburg & Alberto Simpser, Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes (Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 3â10.

Michael Albertus & Victor Menaldo, Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes (eds. Tom Ginsburg & Alberto Simpser: Cambridge University Press, 2014), p. 54.

Davis S. Law & Mila Versteeg, "Constitutional Variation Among Strains of Authoritarianism" in Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes (eds. Tom Ginsburg & Alberto Simpser: Cambridge University Press, 2014), p. 173.

Michael Albertus & Victor Menaldo, Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes (eds. Tom Ginsburg & Alberto Simpser: Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 54, 80.

Mehran Tamadonfar, Islamic Law and Governance in Contemporary Iran: Transcending Islam for Social, Economic, and Political Order (Lexington Books, 2015), pp. 311â313.

Beckert, Jen. "Communitarianism." International Encyclopedia of Economic Sociology. London: Routledge, 2006. 81.

role will senators play in naming Thailand's next PM?

Erik J. ZÃ¼rcher, Turkey: A Modern History (I.B. Tauris: rev. ed. 1997), pp. 176â206.

Radu Cinpoes, Nationalism and Identity in Romania: A History of Extreme Politics from the Birth of the State to EU Accession, p. 70.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Authoritarianism Wikipedia page

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Authoritarianism Unveiled

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining Authoritarianism ℹ️

⚖️ Core Principles

📊 Historical Trajectory

🔑 Linz's Framework

Defining Characteristics ⚙️

🔒 Centralized Power & Repression

🗣️ Informal Power & Limited Opposition

⏳ Indefinite Tenure & Legitimacy

Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes 📜

📖 Functional Roles

🛠️ Consolidation and Control

💡 Authoritarian Constitutionalism

Contemporary Authoritarian Regimes 🌍

📜 Current Examples

Historical Authoritarian Regimes ⏳

📜 Historical Examples

Economic Considerations 💰

📈 Development and Democracy

🤝 Elites, Labor, and Development

Institutional Frameworks 🏛️

⚙️ Mimicking Democracy

🗳️ Elections and Control

🚧 Hindrances to Fair Elections

Elite and Mass Interactions 👥

⚖️ Balancing Power

Information Manipulation 📰

🧠 Control Through Narrative

📢 Propaganda's Effectiveness

Systemic Weakness and Resilience 💪

📉 Inherent Fragility

💥 Vulnerability to Collapse

✊ Resistance

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

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References

📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Authoritarianism

Core Principles

Historical Trajectory

Linz's Framework

Defining Characteristics

Centralized Power & Repression

Informal Power & Limited Opposition

Indefinite Tenure & Legitimacy

Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes

Functional Roles

Consolidation and Control

Authoritarian Constitutionalism

Contemporary Authoritarian Regimes

Current Examples

Historical Authoritarian Regimes

Historical Examples

Economic Considerations

Development and Democracy

Elites, Labor, and Development

Institutional Frameworks

Mimicking Democracy

Elections and Control

Hindrances to Fair Elections

Elite and Mass Interactions

Balancing Power

Information Manipulation

Control Through Narrative

Propaganda's Effectiveness

Systemic Weakness and Resilience

Inherent Fragility

Vulnerability to Collapse

Resistance

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice