Echoes of Alexandria: Unveiling Basilides' Gnostic Cosmos
Delve into the intricate theological framework of Basilides, a foundational figure in 2nd-century Christian Gnosticism, and his enduring intellectual legacy.
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Introduction
The Gnostic Teacher
Basilides was a prominent early Christian Gnostic religious teacher who operated in Alexandria, Egypt, during the 2nd century AD. According to Clement of Alexandria, his period of activity spanned from approximately 117 to 161 AD. Basilides asserted that his teachings were directly inherited from the Apostle Saint Matthias, lending a profound apostolic authority to his unique interpretations of Christian thought.
Prolific Commentator
Remarkably, Basilides is credited with authoring over two dozen books of commentary on the Christian Gospel, collectively titled Exegetica. While these extensive works are now lost, their sheer volume and focus on Gospel interpretation position him as one of the earliest known commentators on the Christian Gospels. This intellectual output underscores his significant role in shaping early Gnostic discourse.
Enduring Movement
The followers of Basilides, known as the Basilideans, constituted a distinct religious movement that persisted for at least two centuries after his lifetime. Epiphanius of Salamis, writing in the late 4th century, noted a continued Basilidian presence in the Nile Delta region of Egypt. However, it is generally believed that by the latter half of the 2nd century, the Basilidean school gradually integrated into the broader currents of Gnosticism.
Core Doctrine
Conflicting Accounts
Understanding Basilides' mythological and philosophical system is complicated by the stark contradictions found in the primary sources: the writings of Irenaeus and Hippolytus of Rome. Historically, Hippolytus's account was often favored as more authentic. However, contemporary scholarship increasingly contests this consensus, with some historians now considering both accounts potentially unreliable. This highlights the challenges in reconstructing early Gnostic thought from polemical sources.
Scholarly Debate
The ongoing debate among historians regarding the reliability of Irenaeus and Hippolytus underscores the nuanced nature of studying ancient religious movements. Researchers must critically evaluate the biases and theological agendas of these Church Fathers, who often sought to refute Gnostic teachings rather than simply record them. This critical approach is essential for any attempt to reconstruct Basilides' original doctrines.
Theogony
The Ungendered Father
According to Irenaeus, Basilides posited the "Ungendered Father" as the ultimate first principle, the source of all existence. From this transcendent Father, a series of five emanations unfolded, forming a hierarchical divine order. This concept of successive emanations is a hallmark of many Gnostic systems, explaining the descent from a perfect, unknowable God to the material world.
The Primal Ogdoad
Clement of Alexandria provides further insight, stating that Basilides believed in a primal Ogdoad, an octet of primordial beings. This group included "Justice" and its offspring "Peace," which, in Basilides' cosmology, were not merely human virtues but fundamental divine entities. The concept of an Ogdoad is also corroborated by the Testimony of Truth from the Nag Hammadi library, suggesting Basilides may have drawn this idea from existing Jewish Gnostic traditions in Alexandria.
Cosmology
Creation by Angels
Irenaeus reports that Basilides taught that Sophia and Dynamis, two of the divine emanations, were responsible for creating a group of angels. These angels, in turn, created the first heaven. This process of emanation and creation continued in a hierarchical fashion: emanations from the first angels created the second heaven, and so forth, until a staggering 365 heavens were brought into existence. This intricate system directly correlated with the number of days in a solar year, providing a cosmic explanation for calendrical cycles.
The Archon and Our World
Our human world, according to Basilides, corresponds to the final, 365th heaven, created by the ultimate angelic emanation. The chief of this final set of emanations is identified as the Archon. In Basilides' view, this Archon is the God of the Jews, so named because he specifically favored the Jewish people. This concept positions the creator God of the Old Testament as a subordinate, albeit powerful, entity within a much larger, more complex divine hierarchy, a common theme in Gnostic thought.
Interconnected Cosmologies
Basilides' system of creator-angels and a series of heavens mirroring the calendrical year is not unique. Similar cosmological structures can be found in other Gnostic traditions, such as those of Saturninus of Antioch, the Epistle of Eugnostos, and the longer version of the Apocryphon of John. This suggests a shared intellectual milieu and cross-pollination of ideas among various Gnostic schools in the early Christian era.
Christology
Canonical Narrative
Basilides and his followers generally accepted the biographical details of Jesus as presented in the canonical Gospels. This acceptance of the narrative framework provided a common ground with mainstream Christianity, even as their interpretations diverged significantly on the nature of Christ and salvation.
The Simon of Cyrene Debate
One notable deviation, as claimed by Irenaeus, was the belief that Jesus was substituted on the cross by Simon of Cyrene during the walk to Golgotha. In this account, Simon, who was commissioned to carry Jesus's cross, had his physical features swapped with Jesus. Simon was then crucified, while Jesus stood by, laughing and ridiculing the event. However, M. David Litwa argues that Irenaeus likely conflated Basilides' views with those found in other texts, such as the Second Treatise of the Great Seth.
Suffering on the Cross
Further evidence suggests Irenaeus's initial report might be inaccurate. Irenaeus himself elsewhere indicates that the Basilidean view held that Jesus's body *did* suffer on the cross. This is corroborated by Clement of Alexandria's Stromata (4.12.83.1). The image of a laughing Jesus, as presented in Irenaeus's first account, also seems inconsistent with the character of Jesus in Basilides' canonical sources and aligns more with polemical attempts by heresiologists like Tertullian to portray their opponents as rejecting the salvific death of Jesus.
Gnosis & Election
Salvation Through Knowledge
Consistent with other Gnostic traditions, Basilides taught that salvation is attained through knowledge (gnosis), rather than through faith. This gnosis was not ordinary intellectual understanding but an esoteric, divine revelation bestowed upon human beings by the divine being, Jesus Christ. In this framework, faith, as commonly understood, played no direct role in achieving salvation.
Nature of Faith
Basilides defined faith as merely "an assent of the soul to any of the things which do not excite sensation, because they are not present." He further believed that faith was a matter of "nature," not a conscious choice. This implied that individuals would "discover doctrines without demonstration by an intellective apprehension," suggesting an inherent capacity for spiritual understanding rather than a volitional act of belief. Basilides also linked different "forms of dignity" to one's inherent faith.
The Elect
Given his belief in the natural basis of faith, Basilides extended the concept of election to designate a specific portion of humanity as inherently entitled by divine decree to receive higher enlightenment. He referred to "the elect a stranger to the world, as being by nature supermundane," indicating a predestined spiritual elite distinct from the rest of mankind. This concept of an "elect" group with innate spiritual superiority is a recurring theme in various Gnostic systems.
Karma & Suffering
Metempsychosis
Basilides introduced the concept of metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls, into his doctrine. He taught that sins committed in a past stage of existence would incur penalties in the current life. This framework explained suffering as a form of requital for previous actions. He believed that "the elect soul" might suffer "honourably through martyrdom," while other souls would be cleansed through "appropriate punishment."
Scriptural Interpretation
The Basilideans applied this doctrine of metempsychosis to interpret biblical passages, such as the Lord's language about requital to the third and fourth generations. Origen notes that Basilides himself interpreted Romans 7:9 in this context, stating: "The Apostle said, 'I lived without a law once,' that is, before I came into this body, I lived in such a form of body as was not under a law, that of a beast namely, or a bird." This radical reinterpretation highlights the Gnostic tendency to find esoteric meanings in canonical texts.
Innocent Suffering
Basilides also addressed the suffering of those who appear to have committed no prior sin, such as infants. He argued that such suffering was not "by the design of an [adverse] power," but rather a benefit, with the infant "gaining" many hardships. This suggests a complex understanding of suffering, where even seemingly unjust pain could serve a higher, redemptive purpose within the cycle of transmigration.
Afterlife
Absence of Traditional Hell
Origen, a prominent Church Father, criticized Basilides for effectively removing the "salutary fear" of traditional hell. Basilides taught that transmigrations of the soul were the *only* punishments after death. This perspective fundamentally altered the eschatological landscape, replacing eternal damnation with a cyclical process of purification through successive lives, aligning with his doctrine of metempsychosis.
Martyrdom
Punishment for Past Sins
Consistent with his fatalistic view of metempsychosis, Basilides held a controversial stance on Christian martyrs. He believed that martyrs were not being punished for their Christian faith, but rather for sins they had committed in previous existences. This interpretation significantly devalued the act of martyrdom, which was highly revered in early mainstream Christianity, leading Origen to state that Basilides "depreciated the martyrs."
Passions
Appendages of the Soul
The Basilideans referred to human passions as "Appendages" (Greek: ฯฯฮฟฯแฟฯฯฮทฮผฮญฮฝฮฑ). They described these as certain spirits that attach themselves to rational souls during a primitive state of turmoil and confusion. These Appendages then mimic the actions of the souls they are attached to, not only acquiring the impulses of irrational animals but even imitating the movements and beauties of plants. Furthermore, these Appendages could manifest characteristics derived from inanimate objects, such as the hardness of a diamond, illustrating a profound and pervasive influence on the human psyche.
Practices
Views on Marriage
Clement of Alexandria, while rebuking the immorality of later Basilideans, provides insights into Basilides' and his son Isidore's teachings on marriage. Basilides interpreted Matthew 19:12, suggesting that the last class of eunuchs referred to those who remained celibate to avoid the distracting cares of earning a livelihood. Isidore further clarified that while sexual intercourse is natural, it is not strictly necessary, distinguishing between natural and necessary human conditions.
Epiphany Celebration
Although direct evidence is lacking that Basilides viewed Jesus's Baptism as the moment a Divine being first united with Jesus of Nazareth, he clearly ascribed unusual significance to the event. St. Hippolytus of Rome implied that Basilides regarded the Baptism as the occasion when Jesus received "the Gospel" through divine illumination. Clement notes that "They of Basilides" celebrated the day of His Baptism with a preliminary night-service of scripture readings. Historical accounts suggest this Basilidian rite might have been a modification of an older local custom, involving singing and flute-playing in a heathen temple in Alexandria.
Meat & Apostasy
Eusebius of Caesarea, citing Agrippa Castor, claimed that Basilides taught "that the eating of meat offered to idols and the unguarded renunciation of the faith in times of persecution were matters of indifference." However, evidence from Clement's Stromata suggests Agrippa may have misunderstood Basilides' argument, possibly conflating it with the practices of later Basilideans. It appears Basilides might have argued that these actions were not condemned for immorality but were rather punishments for prior immorality, reflecting his doctrine of metempsychosis.
Pythagorean Silence
Agrippa Castor also reported that Basilides, in a "Pythagorean fashion," prescribed a period of five years of silence for his disciples. This practice likely aimed to foster deep contemplation, esoteric learning, and spiritual discipline, echoing ancient philosophical traditions that valued quietude for intellectual and spiritual development.
Invented Prophets
Agrippa Castor further alleged that Basilides "invented prophets for himself named Barcabbas and Barcoph, and others that had no existence." These alleged prophecies likely belonged to the apocryphal Zoroastrian literature, which was popular among various Gnostic groups, suggesting Basilides drew from a wide array of esoteric traditions to support his teachings.
Matthias' Traditions
Both Basilides and his son Isidore claimed to have received mystical doctrines from Matthias, who, they asserted, heard these teachings privately from the Savior. Origen and Eusebius also refer to a "Gospel" of or according to Matthias, though its true name was likely the Traditions of Matthias. This claim to direct apostolic succession through Matthias provided a powerful legitimizing narrative for their unique Gnostic interpretations.
Isidore's Contributions
Son and Disciple
Isidore, Basilides' son, was also his devoted disciple and a significant figure in the Basilidean school. Hippolytus and Clement both refer to him as "at once son and disciple," highlighting his dual role in inheriting and developing his father's teachings. Isidore authored three known works: On the Grown Soul, Ethics, and Expositions of the Prophet Parchor, though these are now lost, with only fragments surviving through other writers.
Expositions of Parchor
In his Expositions of the Prophet Parchor, Isidore argued that the profound thoughts of heathen philosophers and mythologers were ultimately derived from Jewish sources. He cited figures like Pherecydes of Syros, known for his early promulgation of metempsychosis, to validate his own lineage as a descendant of the prophets. Isidore also accepted the theory that apocryphal Zoroastrian books held quasi-biblical sanctity, stemming from Zoroaster, a purported son of Noah, thereby integrating diverse traditions into his Gnostic framework.
On an Adherent Soul
Isidore's work On an Adherent Soul appears to have presented a counter-argument to his father's teaching on "Appendages." Isidore emphasized the unity of the soul and maintained that individuals could not use the "violence of the appendages" as an excuse for involuntary evil acts. He asserted that "our duty is, by overcoming the inferior creation within us through the reasoning faculty, to show ourselves to have the mastery," advocating for human agency and moral responsibility in the face of internal spiritual influences.
Ethical Guidance
A fragment from Isidore's Ethics offers practical guidance on spiritual conduct, particularly concerning marriage and prayer. He advised: "Abstain, then, from a quarrelsome woman lest you are distracted from the grace of God. But when you have rejected the fire of the seed, then pray with an undisturbed conscience. And when your prayer of thanksgiving," he says, "descends to a prayer of request, and your request is not that in future you may do right, but that you may do no wrong, then marry." This passage reveals a focus on spiritual purity and intentionality in personal relationships.
Legacy
Eclectic Synthesis
Basilides' Gnosticism was profoundly eclectic, integrating elements from antecedent Gnosticism, Greek philosophy, and the Christian faith and Scriptures. His system stands apart from Syrian or original Gnosticism, having been more thoroughly remolded in a Greek spirit than even the system of Valentinus. This intellectual synthesis allowed Basilides to construct a unique and complex theological framework that resonated with the philosophical currents of Alexandria.
Basilides vs. Valentinus
While ancient writers often list Basilides before Valentinus, they were likely contemporaries. A comparison of their doctrines suggests that the Valentinian system might have served as a starting point from which Basilides developed his own contrasting theories. Basilides diverged from older Gnosticism more significantly than Valentinus, discarding or even repudiating several leading Gnostic forms or ideas that Valentinus retained, such as descent from above, pullulation (putting forth), syzygies of male and female powers, and the relegation of faith to a lower status than knowledge.
The Limitary Spirit
A notable example of Basilides' transformative approach is his unique designation of the Holy Spirit as "the Limitary (ฮผฮตฮธฯฯฮนฮฟฮฝ) Spirit." This concept, along with its assigned place in his cosmology, is widely interpreted as a reinterpretation of the Valentinian "Limit" (Horos). This suggests a conscious effort by Basilides to refine and adapt existing Gnostic concepts to fit his own philosophical and theological vision.
Softening Oppositions
Basilides' system also demonstrated a tendency to soften the sharp oppositions prevalent in other Gnostic traditions, such as those between matter and spirit, creation and redemption, the Jewish age and the Christian age, and the earthly and heavenly elements within the Person of Jesus. This impulse likely stemmed from Christian ideas, leading to a more nuanced, albeit still distinct, theological perspective. He explicitly repudiated an antecedent matter, embracing Genesis 1:3 and a divine counsel foreordaining all processes, yet attributed the chaotic nullity to the Maker, blurring the lines between Creator and creation.
Nature as Arbiter
In Basilides' thought, nature was not only accepted as dictating the conditions of the lower life but also as the supreme and permanent arbiter of destiny. While faith regained some rights in his system, it remained an energy of the understanding, accessible only to those with an innate capacity. Consequently, God's interactions with humanity were confined within the bounds of a mechanical justice, emphasizing a deterministic aspect to spiritual progression.
Primary Sources
Church Fathers
Our understanding of Basilides primarily derives from the writings of various Church Fathers, who often wrote to refute Gnostic teachings. Key sources include Eusebius's Chronicon, the conflicting accounts by Irenaeus (in Against Heresies) and Hippolytus of Rome (in Philosophumena), and crucial excerpts from Basilides' lost works preserved by Clement of Alexandria (in Stromata). Other Church Fathers also commented on Basilides, though their views were often informed by later Basilidean followers rather than Basilides himself.
Lost Works & Fragments
Nearly all of Basilides' original writings are lost, but the names of three works and fragments survive. His extensive Exegetica, a commentary on the Christian Gospel, is known through fragments in Clement's Stromata and Archelaus's Acts of the Disputation with Manes. Origen also mentions that Basilides "had even the audacity to write a Gospel according to Basilides," though no trace of such a Gospel exists independently, suggesting it might have been another name for the Exegetica or a misunderstanding by Origen. Origen also refers to "Odes" by Basilides.
Surviving Fragments
In total, 19 surviving fragments are known, with 10 directly attributed to Basilides. These include passages from Clement's Stromata and Origen's homilies, as well as Hegemonius's Acta Archelai. The authenticity of some of these fragments remains a subject of scholarly debate. These fragments offer glimpses into his core doctrines, such as:
- The Octet of Subsistent Entities
- The Uniqueness of the World
- Election Naturally Entails Faith and Virtue
- The State of Virtue
- The Elect Transcend the World
- Reincarnation
- Human Suffering and the Goodness of Providence
- Forgivable Sins
Acts of Disputation
The Acts of the Disputation with Manes, written in the late 3rd century or later, discusses the Basilidean origins of Manichaeism. While some scholars debate whether the Basilides mentioned in this text is the same Alexandrian teacher, the remarkable correspondence between the "treatises" described (thirteen books, including a parable interpretation) and Basilides' known "twenty-four books on the Gospel" (Exegetica) suggests a strong likelihood of identity. This text provides further insight into the intellectual lineage and influence of Basilidean thought.
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References
References
- Hort 1911 cites Iren. p. 100 Mass.; followed by Eus. H. E. iv. 7; Epiph. Haer. xxiv. 1, p. 68 c; cf. xxiii. 1, p. 62 B; Theod. Haer. Fab. i. 2.
- Gospel of Basilides
- Basilides
- Hort 1911 states that "It is a singular testimony to the impression created at the outset by Basilides and his system that he remained for centuries one of the eponymi of heresy".
- Louis P. Pojman, "Basilides," in The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 3rd ed., ed. Robert Audi.
- Hort 1911 cites Cf. Zeller, Philos. d. Griechen, i. 55 f. ed. 3.
- Hort 1911 cites Lipsius, Quellen d. รยคlt. Ketzergeschichte, 256.
- Hort 1911 cites St. Jerome, Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew Prologue
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