Echoes from the North: Decoding the Blakumen of Medieval Norse Records
An academic journey into the mysterious people and lands mentioned in Scandinavian sagas and runic inscriptions, exploring their identity and historical context.
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Unveiling the Blakumen
A People in Scandinavian Records
The terms Blakumen and Blökumenn refer to a people frequently mentioned in Scandinavian historical sources from the 11th to the 13th centuries. Alongside these ethnonyms, the name of their associated territory, Blokumannaland, has also been preserved in these medieval texts. The precise identity of these groups and their geographical domain has been a subject of considerable scholarly debate among historians and philologists.
Geographical Speculations
Historians largely identify Blokumannaland as the regions situated south of the Lower Danube River, areas known to have been inhabited by Vlachs during the medieval period. However, the term's interpretation is not without ambiguity. In modern Icelandic, for instance, Blokumannaland can refer to either Wallachia, a historical region north of the Danube, or even to Africa, highlighting the potential for semantic shifts over centuries and across different cultural contexts.
Competing Interpretations
Several prominent historians have offered differing interpretations regarding the identity of the Blakumen. Scholars such as Victor Spinei, Florin Curta, and Florin Pintescu generally identify them as Romanians, viewing the term as a variation of the exonym "Vlach." Conversely, Omeljan Pritsak posits that the Blakumen were in fact Cumans, a Turkic nomadic people. Judith Jesch introduces an additional possibility, suggesting that the terms might literally mean "black men," though the specific implications or referents of such a designation remain unclear and open to further investigation.
The Sjonhem Runestone
An 11th-Century Memorial
The singular preserved instance of the ethnonym Blakumen appears on a runestone located in the Sjonhem cemetery on Gotland, an island in Sweden. Paleographic analysis of the runes suggests that this memorial stone was erected around 1050 AD, providing a crucial early reference to this enigmatic people.[1][2][3][4]
The Fate of Hr\u00f3\u00f0f\u00fass
The inscription on the Sjonhem runestone commemorates Hr\u00f3\u00f0f\u00fass, one of three sons of a Varangian couple, Hr\u00f3\u00f0v\u00edsl and Hr\u00f3\u00f0elfr. Tragically, Hr\u00f3\u00f0f\u00fass was "treacherously killed by Blakumen" while undertaking a journey abroad.[3][4][5] While the runestone itself offers no further details on the circumstances of the crime, historians have proposed various scenarios.
Scholarly Interpretations
Victor Spinei suggests that Hr\u00f3\u00f0f\u00fass was murdered by Vlachs in the regions east of the Carpathian Mountains.[3] Florin Curta hypothesizes that Hr\u00f3\u00f0f\u00fass, likely a merchant en route to Constantinople, was attacked and killed by Vlachs north of the Lower Danube.[2] Judith Jesch similarly posits Hr\u00f3\u00f0f\u00fass as a merchant on a foreign voyage, betrayed by local merchants, aligning with historical accounts of Vlach untrustworthiness.[6][7] Jesch also considers the possibility that Blakumen could mean "black men," though the precise meaning in this context remains ambiguous.[5][8]
The Flatey Book Saga
A 14th-Century Icelandic Manuscript
The Flateyjarbók, a comprehensive Icelandic manuscript compiled in the late 14th century, provides another significant mention of the Blökumenn. This work contains a 13th-century biography of King Olaf of Norway, which includes a distinct chapter detailing the exploits of a Norwegian prince named Eymund at the court of Prince Jarizleifr in Novgorod.[1][2][13]
Eymund's Warning
Within this chapter, Eymund relays critical intelligence to Jarizleifr concerning the movements of Jarizleifr's brother, Burizlaf. Eymund reports that Burizlaf had departed for Tyrkland and was amassing a formidable army, composed of Tyrkir, Blökumen, and other peoples, with the intention of attacking Jarizleifr.[1] This narrative offers a glimpse into the geopolitical landscape and alliances of the era.
Identifying the Combatants
Scholars, including Curta and Spinei, generally identify Jarizleifr with Yaroslav the Wise and Burizlaf with Sviatopolk I of Kiev. They interpret the mention of Tyrkir and Blökumen as evidence that Sviatopolk I enlisted Pechenegs (Turkic nomads) and Vlachs (Romanians) in his military campaigns against Yaroslav.[2][14] Furthermore, these historians propose that the Blökumenn referenced in the Flatey Book, much like the Blakumen of the Gotland runestone, were Vlachs originating from the historical regions of Moldavia or Wallachia.[2][13]
The Land of Blokumannaland
Mention in Heimskringla
Blokumannaland, the land associated with the Blakumen, is explicitly mentioned in Snorri Sturluson's 13th-century monumental work, Heimskringla, also known as "The Circle of the World."[16] This historical saga recounts how the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, referred to as Kirjalax, launched an invasion into Blokumannaland, engaging in conflict with various pagan tribes inhabiting the region.
Dating the Byzantine Campaign
The precise dating of this Byzantine invasion remains a point of scholarly contention, as the pagan tribes mentioned have not been definitively identified. Victor Spinei correlates the events described in the Heimskringla with the Battle of Levounion in 1091 AD, which resulted in a decisive defeat for the Pechenegs at the hands of the Byzantines.[16][17] Other proposed dates include 1040 AD by Sandaaker, and a later date of 1122 AD suggested by Ellis Davidson and Blöndal.[16]
Geographical Identifications
Spinei argues that Blokumannaland in this context refers to a territory inhabited by Vlachs situated south of the Lower Danube River.[10] Alexandru Madgearu, however, suggests that Sturluson's reference to lands south of the Danube as Blokumannaland was anachronistic, as the term would have referred to the Second Bulgarian Empire during Sturluson's own time.[18] Intriguingly, in the modern Icelandic language, the term Blokumannaland can denote either Wallachia or even Africa, underscoring the historical and linguistic complexities surrounding its interpretation.[16]>
Scholarly Debates & Interpretations
Vlachs vs. Cumans
The primary debate surrounding the identity of the Blakumen centers on whether they were Vlachs (Romanians) or Cumans. Omeljan Pritsak, for instance, explicitly rejects the identification of the Blakumen from the runestone inscription with Vlachs. Instead, he asserts that they were Cumans, whose westward migration into the Pontic steppes commenced around the same period the Sjonhem runestone was erected.[9]
Counterarguments to Cuman Theory
Victor Spinei offers robust counterarguments to Pritsak's Cuman hypothesis. He highlights that several mentions of Blakumen or Blökumen, such as those found in Eymund's Saga, predate the earliest documented appearance of Cumans in the Pontic steppe by decades.[10] Furthermore, Spinei argues against the linguistic plausibility of "Black Cumans" as a Varangian ethnic term. He notes the absence of mirror forms in other languages (e.g., *cumani nigri in Latin or *mauro Koumanoi in Greek) and deems the juxtaposition of a Scandinavian adjective with a Greek or Latin proper name to form "Blakumen" or "Blokumannaland" highly improbable.[11]>
The "Black Men" Hypothesis
Judith Jesch introduces an intriguing, albeit ambiguous, alternative interpretation: that the term Blakumen might literally translate to "black men."[5] However, she acknowledges that the precise meaning or the specific group to whom this designation might refer remains unclear.[8] This linguistic possibility adds another layer of complexity to the already multifaceted historical puzzle of the Blakumen's identity.
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This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.
This is not definitive historical fact. The interpretations and debates presented herein reflect current scholarly discourse and are subject to ongoing research and revision. Historical understanding is dynamic, and new evidence or perspectives may alter these conclusions. Always consult primary historical sources and a range of reputable academic works for a comprehensive understanding of medieval history.
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