What is Cilicia and where is it located geographically?

Cilicia is a geographical region in southern Anatolia, West Asia, extending inland from the northeastern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Pamphylia to the west, Lycaonia and Cappadocia to the north, Commagene to the north-east, Syria to the east, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. This region is part of modern-day Turkey.

Which modern provinces of Turkey are included in the Cilicia region?

The modern region of Cilicia includes the provinces of Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye, and Hatay. These provinces collectively form the contemporary geographical area known as Cilicia.

What is the estimated population of Cilicia, and where is it primarily concentrated?

Cilicia has a population exceeding six million, with the majority concentrated in the Cilician plain, also known as Çukurova in Turkish. As of December 31, 2022, the total population was 6,435,986, indicating a densely populated and agriculturally rich area.

From what ancient name was the name "Cilicia" derived?

The name Cilicia was derived from "Hilakku," which was the name used by the Neo-Assyrian Empire to designate the western part of the region that would later become Cilicia. This historical naming reflects the region's ancient connections to Mesopotamian empires.

How is the modern English pronunciation of "Cilicia" explained by linguistic changes?

The modern English pronunciation of "Cilicia" is due to the palatalization of the letter 'c' that occurred in Western Europe in later Vulgar Latin, approximately between 500 and 700 AD. The English spelling itself is the same as the Latin, as it was transliterated directly from the Greek form, Kilikía.

How was ancient Cilicia naturally divided, and what were the characteristics of these divisions?

Ancient Cilicia was naturally divided into Cilicia Trachea (Latin: Cilicia Aspera), located west of the Limonlu River and characterized by rugged, mountainous terrain, and Cilicia Pedias (Latin: Cilicia Campestris), located east of the Limonlu River and known for its fertile, smooth coastal plain. These two distinct geographical zones had different historical and economic developments.

What geographical features separated Cilicia from neighboring regions to the north and east?

Cilicia was separated from Syria by the Nur Mountains to the east, and from the high central plateau of Anatolia to the north and east by the rugged Taurus Mountains. The Taurus Mountains are famously pierced by a narrow gorge called the Cilician Gates, a historically significant pass.

What made the coast of Rough Cilicia significant in classical and medieval times?

In classical times, the rocky headlands and small sheltered harbors of Rough Cilicia made its coast a string of havens for pirates. In the Middle Ages, these features served as outposts for Genoese and Venetian traders, highlighting its strategic maritime location.

What agricultural products were historically abundant in Plain Cilicia, according to ancient sources like Xenophon?

Plain Cilicia was known for its abundance of sesame, millet, and olives, as noted by the Greek historian Xenophon. It also provided rich pasturage for horses, which were imported into ancient Israel by King Solomon.

Which major rivers irrigate the plain of Cilicia, and what historical impact did they have?

The plain of Cilicia is watered by three great rivers: the Cydnus (modern Tarsus Çay Berdan River), the Sarus (modern Seyhan), and the Pyramus (modern Ceyhan River). These rivers brought down much silt from the deforested interior, feeding extensive wetlands and contributing to the region's renowned fertility.

Describe the climate variations found within Cilicia.

Cilicia exhibits significant climate differences between its mountains and lower plains. The lower plains experience a typical Mediterranean climate with hot summers and mild winters, which contributes to the land's fertility, especially in the eastern plains. In contrast, the mountains have an inland climate with snowy winters.

What is the geological composition of Cilicia's mountains and plains?

The mountains of Cilicia are formed from ancient limestones, conglomerate, marlstone, and similar materials, with the Taurus Mountains specifically composed of karstic limestone. The lower plain is Turkey's largest alluvial plain, formed over time by the expansion of limestone formations and fourth-era alluvials brought by the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers.

Which major rivers flow through modern Cilicia and where do they originate and empty?

The major rivers in modern Cilicia include the Seyhan River, which emerges from the confluence of the Zamantı and Göksu rivers in Kayseri Province and flows into the Gulf of Mersin; the Ceyhan River, emerging from the Aksu and Hurman rivers and flowing towards Cape Hürmüz at the Gulf of İskenderun; the Berdan River, originating from the Taurus Mountains and flowing into the Mediterranean south of Tarsus; and the Göksu River, also originating from the Taurus Mountains and flowing into the Mediterranean southeast of Silifke.

What evidence suggests early human settlement in Cilicia during the Neolithic period?

Cilicia was settled from the Neolithic period onwards, with ancient settlements dating from the Aceramic/Neolithic period (8th and 7th millennia BC) through the Early, Middle, and Late Chalcolithic periods, and into the Early Bronze Age (3400–2000 BC). This indicates a long history of human habitation in the region.

What was Cilicia known as during the earlier Hittite era in the 2nd millennium BC?

During the earlier Hittite era in the 2nd millennium BC, the area of Cilicia was known as Kizzuwatna. This region was further divided into "plain" Cilicia (Uru Adaniya), a well-watered plain, and "rough" Cilicia (Tarza), a mountainous western part.

How did Hittite and Hurrian powers influence Cilicia during the Bronze Age?

Around 1650 BC, Hittite kings Hattusili I and Mursili I exerted strong control over Cilicia, using the Pyramus River for movement in battles with Syria. After Mursili's death, Hurrians gained control, and Cilicia became independent for two centuries under kings like Išputahšu. Later, increased Hittite power led to Kizzuwatna falling to the Hittites, threatening Cilicia, and King Sunassura II became a Hittite vassal, though Cilicia later regained its independence after Mursili I's death.

What significant population shift occurred in Cilicia during the 13th century BC?

In the 13th century BC, a major population shift occurred as the Sea Peoples overran Cilicia. The Hurrians who resided there deserted the area and moved northeast towards the Taurus Mountains, where they settled in the region of Cappadocia.

What were the two main polities dominating Cilicia during the Iron Age, and how were they referred to in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources?

During the early and middle Iron Age, Cilicia was dominated by two main polities: Haiyawa in the east (Plain Cilicia), referred to as "Que" in Neo-Assyrian sources and "Hauwê" in Neo-Babylonian sources; and the state in the west (Rough Cilicia), referred to as "Hilakku" in Neo-Assyrian sources and "Pirindu" in Neo-Babylonian sources.

When and where was an independent state called Cilicia established in southeastern Anatolia during the Iron Age?

In the 6th century BC, an independent state called Cilicia (Kilikía in Ancient Greek) was established in southeastern Anatolia under the rule of a native dynasty, with its capital at the city of Tarsus. This marked a period of self-governance for the region.

How did Cilicia come under the influence of the Achaemenid Empire in the mid-6th century BC?

In the mid-6th century BC, the kingdom of Cilicia supported Cyrus II, the founding king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, in his wars against Croesus of Lydia. As a consequence, Cilicia became a vassal of the Achaemenid Empire around 542 BC, and its native rulers became part of the Achaemenid administration.

What degree of autonomy did Cilicia maintain under early Achaemenid rule, and what role did its rulers play?

Under early Achaemenid rule, Cilicia maintained a significant degree of autonomy, with its native rulers acting as satraps (governors) for the Achaemenid administration. Their authority extended as far west as Aspendus, and Cilicia consistently provided troops for Achaemenid military campaigns in Anatolia, Egypt, and Cyprus.

Why did Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II abolish Cilicia's autonomy in 401 BC, and what was the consequence?

Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II abolished Cilicia's autonomy in 401 BC in reaction to the local Cilician ruler Syennesis III's support for the rebellion of Cyrus the Younger. This resulted in the kingdom of Cilicia being abolished and fully integrated into the Achaemenid Empire as a province ruled by an appointed satrap, a status it maintained until 333 BC.

Who were some notable satraps of Cilicia during the Achaemenid period?

Notable satraps of Cilicia during the Achaemenid period included Camisares (c. 390s – c. 385 BC), his son Datames (c. 385 – c. 362 BC), and Mazaeus (c. 340s – 333 BC), who was also given authority over Syria. These individuals were key administrators in the Persian imperial system.

How did Alexander the Great manage to pass through the Cilician Gates during his invasion?

Alexander the Great, aware that the Cilician Gates were "impassable if obstructed by the enemy," used force to frighten the defenders. He attacked under the cover of night, startling the guards and their satrap into full flight, causing them to set their crops ablaze as they fled for Tarsus. This allowed Alexander and his army to pass unharmed through the Gates and into Cilicia.

What happened to Cilicia after Alexander the Great's death during the Hellenistic period?

After Alexander's death, Cilicia became a battleground for rival Hellenistic monarchs and kingdoms. It was under Ptolemaic (Egyptian) dominion for a time but eventually fell to the Seleucids, who, however, never held effectually more than the eastern half. This period saw the establishment of numerous cities that minted their own coins.

When did Cilicia become a Roman province, and who were key figures in its early Roman conquest and organization?

Cilicia Pedias became Roman territory in 103 BC, first conquered by Marcus Antonius Orator, with Sulla serving as its first governor. Cilicia Trachea, a haunt for pirates, was subdued by Pompey in 67 BC. The entire region was organized into a Roman province by Pompey in 64 BC, with Tarsus as its capital.

How did the Parthian Empire impact Cilicia in 51 BC?

In 51 BC, the Parthian Empire was able to take advantage of the weakness of the Roman Republic to invade Cilicia. This invasion marked a temporary shift in regional power dynamics.

How was Cilicia reorganized under Julius Caesar and later integrated into the Roman Empire?

Julius Caesar reorganized Cilicia in 47 BC, and around 27 BC, it became part of the province Syria-Cilicia Phoenice. Initially, the western district remained independent under native kings or priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom under Tarcondimotus I existed in the east. However, Vespasian finally united these areas to the province in 72 AD.

What was the significance of Cilicia within the Roman Empire, particularly regarding its administration and Christian history?

Cilicia was deemed important enough to be governed by a proconsul and contained 47 known cities. It was a crucial region in the classical world and is considered the birthplace of Christianity, being the birthplace of St. Paul and mentioned multiple times in the New Testament. Roman Cilicia also exported goats-hair cloth, Cilicium, used for tents.

How was Cilicia structured administratively and ecclesiastically after Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire?

After Christianity became the official religion in the 4th century, Cilicia was included in the territories of the patriarchate of Antioch. It was divided into two civil and ecclesiastical provinces: Cilicia Prima, with Tarsus as its metropolitan diocese, and Cilicia Secunda, with Anazarbus as its metropolitan diocese, each having several suffragan dioceses. Bishops from Cilicia were well represented at early ecumenical councils.

When did Muslim Arabs invade Cilicia, and how did the Abbasid Caliphate transform the region?

Muslim Arabs invaded Cilicia in the 7th century, succeeding in conquering the area in the early 8th century. Under the Abbasid Caliphate, Cilicia was resettled and transformed into a fortified frontier zone (thughur). Tarsus, rebuilt in 787/788, quickly became the largest settlement and the Arabs' most important base for raids into Byzantine-held Anatolia.

When did the Byzantine Empire reoccupy Cilicia from Muslim control, and what demographic shift followed?

Emperor Nicephorus II reoccupied Cilicia from Muslim control in 965. From this period onward, the area increasingly came to be settled by Armenians, especially as Imperial rule pushed deeper into the Caucasus over the course of the 11th century.

What was the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, and what role did it play during the Crusades?

The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was a Christian state founded around 1080 by Ruben, a relative of the last king of Ani, in the heart of the Cilician Taurus mountains. This state expanded and prospered for about 300 years, giving valuable support to the Crusaders and trading with the great commercial cities of Italy.

How did the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia secure itself and what were its main harbors?

The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia prospered for three centuries due to a vast network of fortifications which secured all the major roads. Its three principal harbors were Ayas, Koşikos (Corycus), and Mopsuestia, which facilitated trade and defense.

Who were some notable rulers of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and what were their achievements?

Notable rulers included Gosdantin (r. 1095 – c. 1100), who assisted the First Crusaders and was created knight and marquis; Thoros I (r. c. 1100 – 1129), who waged successful wars against the Byzantines and Seljuk Turks; and Levon II (Leo the Great, r. 1187–1219), who extended the kingdom, established Sis as the capital, assisted Crusaders, and was crowned King.

How did the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia interact with the Mongols and Mamluks?

Hetoum I (r. 1226–1270) made an alliance with the Mongols, sending his brother Sempad to the Mongol court in person. The Mongols then assisted with the defense of Cilicia from the Mamluks of Egypt, until the Mongols themselves converted to Islam, altering the alliance dynamics.

What factors contributed to the collapse of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia?

The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia collapsed due to several factors: the Ilkhanate lost cohesion after Abu Sa'id's death, internal conflicts within the Armenian Kingdom, the devastation caused by the Black Death in 1348, and the alienation of native Armenians by kings like Gosdantin IV who attempted to make them conform to the Roman Church and favored Latins. These issues led to the kingdom ceding Cilicia Pedias to the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt in 1375.

How did the Mamluk Sultanate administer Cilicia after its conquest in 1375?

After conquering Cilicia in 1375, the Mamluk Sultanate authorized the Ramazanid Turkmen Emirate to administer the region. However, the Mamluks maintained direct control over key towns such as Tarsus, Ayas, Sarvandikar, and Sis, located at the four corners of the Cilicia plain, and appointed an Amir and a garrison for each. Tarsus was settled by Moors from Egypt, while the Ramadanids established Adana as their center.

What was the cultural characteristic of the Yüreğir Turkmens who settled in Cilicia during the Mamluk period?

The Yüreğir Turkmens, who moved to Cilicia in the late 14th century, had a distinct culture influenced by Bektashi traditions, which accompanied Shamanic rituals with Islam. Living alongside a large Armenian community, they fostered a laid-back culture, distinguishing them from other Anatolian beyliks.

How did Cilicia become part of the Ottoman Empire, and what was the initial administrative arrangement?

In 1516, Selim I incorporated Cilicia into the Ottoman Empire after his conquest of the Mamluk state. Initially, the beys of the Ramadanids held the administration of the Ottoman sanjak of Adana in a hereditary manner until 1608, with the area serving as a vassal of the Ottomans.

What significant changes occurred in Cilicia during the 19th century under Ottoman and Egyptian rule?

In late 1832, Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt invaded Syria and reached Cilicia, which was ceded to Egypt by the Convention of Kütahya in 1833. Ibrahim Pasha, his son, demolished Adana Castle and city walls, building irrigation canals and water systems. After the Oriental Crisis, Cilicia returned to Ottoman sovereignty in 1840. The American Civil War (1861) then boosted Cilicia's cotton trade, making it one of the most economically strong regions of the Empire within decades.

What events led to the Adana massacre in 1909?

The Adana massacre in 1909 was triggered by a combination of factors: a thriving regional economy, a doubling of the Cilician Armenian population due to fleeing Hamidian massacres, and the end of autocratic Abdulhamid rule with the 1908 revolution, which empowered the Armenian community and led to visions of an autonomous Cilicia. Enraged supporters of Abdulhamid, organized under Cemiyet-i Muhammediye amidst a countercoup, initiated a series of anti-Armenian pogroms from April 14-27, 1909, resulting in roughly 25,000 Armenian deaths and widespread destruction.

What was the impact of the Armenian genocide on Cilicia's Armenian population?

During the Armenian genocide, an Ottoman telegraph was received by the Governor to deport the more than 70,000 Armenians of the Adana Vilayet to Syria. Armenians of Zeitun had organized a successful resistance but were eventually forced to put down their arms through treachery, leading to their forced displacement.

How did France gain control of Cilicia after World War I, and what were the initial aspirations of the returning Armenians?

The Armistice of Mudros, signed on October 30, 1918, ceded control of Cilicia to France. The French Government sent four battalions of the Armenian Legion in December to take over and oversee the repatriation of more than 170,000 Armenians to Cilicia. These returning Armenians negotiated with France to establish an autonomous "State of Cilicia" and formed the Armenian National Union, which acted as an unofficial Cilician Armenian government.

Why did French policy in Cilicia change, and what was the outcome for the region?

French policy in Cilicia changed because their forces were spread too thinly and came under attacks by Muslim elements. Consequently, the French reversed their policies, halting repatriation and ultimately abandoning all pretensions to Cilicia, which they had hoped to attach to their mandate over Syria. The Cilicia Peace Treaty (1921) and later the Treaty of Ankara (1921) led to the withdrawal of French troops and remaining Armenian volunteers in early January 1922.

What demographic changes occurred in Cilicia after its incorporation into the Republic of Turkey?

After becoming part of the Republic of Turkey in 1921, the "Law of Abandoned Properties" in 1923 confiscated properties of Armenians and Greeks who were not present. Immigrants (muhacirs) from the Balkans and Crete were relocated to old Armenian and Greek neighborhoods and villages. Additionally, Muslims from Kayseri and Darende acquired large farms, factories, stores, and mansions. Within a decade, Cilicia experienced a sharp demographic, social, and economic change, becoming solely Muslim/Turkish.

Who was the mythical Greek founder of Cilicia, and who was the historic founder of the dynasty that ruled Cilicia Pedias?

The Greeks invented Cilix as the eponymous Hellene founder of Cilicia in their mythology. However, the historic founder of the dynasty that ruled Cilicia Pedias was Mopsus, identifiable in Phoenician sources as Mpš, who founded Mopsuestia and gave his name to a nearby oracle.

What was the primary ethnicity of ancient Cilicia's inhabitants, and how long did their linguistic influence persist?

The primary inhabitants of ancient Cilicia were Luwians, who settled in the region in the 2nd millennium BC and made it an important center of Luwian settlement after the Late Bronze Age collapse. Their linguistic influence, characterized by Luwian onomastics, persisted until the early 1st millennium AD, especially in Rough Cilicia.

What evidence suggests a Persian and Persianized nobility existed in Cilicia during the Achaemenid period?

Archaeological evidence, such as reliefs from Silifke, Adana, and Korykos, suggests that a Persian nobility as well as a Persianized nobility existed in Cilicia during the Achaemenid period. This indicates a significant cultural and social influence from the Persian Empire.

What was the cultural diversity of Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid Cilicia, as indicated by archaeological findings?

Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid Cilicia exhibited significant cultural diversity, attested by Aramaic funerary inscriptions and a foundation text at Meydancık, coins minted at Soli and Tarsus (including Persian, modified Persian, and non-Persian types), and both Greek and Aramaic inscriptions. This blend of influences reflects its position at a cultural crossroads.

How did the social organization differ between the eastern and western parts of ancient Cilicia?

The social organization of ancient Cilicia differed significantly between its two main parts: the population of the eastern part was urbanized and engaged in commercial and industrial activities, while the inhabitants of its western regions were tribally organized and led simpler lifestyles, reflecting the contrasting geographies of Plain and Rough Cilicia.

Cilicia Unveiled

A comprehensive academic exploration of Anatolia's ancient heart, from its geographical divisions to its enduring cultural and economic legacy.

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Cilicia: An Overview

Geographical Context

Cilicia represents a pivotal geographical region situated in southern Anatolia, within West Asia. It extends inland from the northeastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, forming a crucial nexus between diverse ancient civilizations. Its strategic location has historically positioned it as a crossroads of cultures and empires.

Regional Borders

The region's boundaries are defined by significant natural and historical markers. To its west lies Pamphylia, while the rugged terrains of Lycaonia and Cappadocia form its northern frontier. Commagene borders it to the north-east, and Syria to the east. The Mediterranean Sea constitutes its southern expanse, providing vital maritime connections throughout history.

Demographics and Administration

Cilicia is home to a substantial population exceeding six million, with the majority concentrated within the fertile Cilician plain, known in Turkish as Çukurova. Administratively, the region encompasses four modern Turkish provinces: Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye, and Hatay, each contributing to the contemporary fabric of this historically rich land.

Etymological Roots

The name "Cilicia" itself carries historical weight, derived from the Neo-Assyrian term Ḫilakku, which originally referred to the western part of the region. This nomenclature was subsequently adopted and transliterated into Greek as Κιλικία and then into Latin as Cilicia, reflecting its long engagement with various linguistic and cultural spheres.

Geographical Divisions

Rough Cilicia (Cilicia Trachea)

This western portion of Cilicia, also known as Cilicia Aspera, is characterized by its rugged, mountainous terrain, formed by the spurs of the Taurus Mountains. Its coastline features rocky headlands interspersed with small, sheltered harbors. Historically, these natural havens made it a notorious stronghold for pirates in classical antiquity and later served as vital outposts for Genoese and Venetian traders in the Middle Ages. The region is watered by the Calycadnus (modern Göksu) river and was once rich in forests, providing timber to ancient Phoenicia and Egypt. Notably, Rough Cilicia lacked the large urban centers found in its eastern counterpart.

Plain Cilicia (Cilicia Pedias)

Contrasting sharply with the west, Plain Cilicia, or Cilicia Campestris, is defined by a vast and exceptionally fertile coastal plain. This region, enriched by deep loamy soil, was renowned for its agricultural abundance, yielding crops such as sesame, millet, and olives, and providing rich pasturage. The plain is irrigated by three major rivers: the Cydnus (Tarsus Çay/Berdan River), the Sarus (Seyhan River), and the Pyramus (Ceyhan River), which historically deposited significant silt, creating extensive wetlands. Key ancient cities like Tarsus, Adana, and Mopsuestia flourished along these river systems, serving as vital nodes on the great highway connecting the East and West.

Climate and Hydrology

Cilicia exhibits a diverse climate, transitioning from a typical Mediterranean style in the lower plains—characterized by hot summers and mild, fertile winters—to an inland climate with snowy winters in the mountainous regions. The average annual precipitation is approximately 647 mm, with about 76 rainy days per year. Mersin and its environs experience the highest average temperatures and precipitation within Cilicia. The region's hydrology is further defined by several lakes, including Akyatan and Akyayan, and significant reservoirs such as Seyhan and Çatalan, all fed by its major river systems.

Geological Foundations

The geological composition of Cilicia is as varied as its topography. The mountains are primarily formed from ancient limestones, conglomerates, and marlstones. The majestic Taurus Mountains, in particular, are composed of karstic limestone, contributing to a soil profile that is largely limestone-derived, though with notable pockets of volcanic soil. The expansive lower plain stands as Turkey's largest alluvial plain, a testament to millennia of sediment deposition by the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers, which have shaped this remarkably fertile landscape.

A Tapestry of Eras

Prehistoric and Bronze Age Foundations

Cilicia boasts a deep history of human settlement, dating back to the Neolithic period (8th and 7th millennia BC). Subsequent eras saw the development of Early, Middle, and Late Chalcolithic cultures, followed by the Early Bronze Age, indicating continuous occupation and cultural evolution. During the 2nd millennium BC, the region was known as Kizzuwatna within the Hittite sphere of influence, often divided into "plain" (Uru Adaniya) and "rough" (Tarza) sections. This period saw shifting control between Hittites and Hurrians, with figures like King Išputahšu establishing early forms of independent rule, often navigating complex treaties with regional powers like Alalakh.

Iron Age and Achaemenid Dominion

The Iron Age saw Cilicia dominated by two primary polities: Ḫiyawa in the east (Plain Cilicia) and Ḫilakku/Pirindu in the west (Rough Cilicia). By the 6th century BC, an independent Kingdom of Cilicia emerged with its capital at Tarsus. This autonomy, however, was short-lived as Cilicia strategically supported Cyrus II of Persia, leading to its vassalization under the Achaemenid Empire around 542 BC. While initially maintaining a degree of self-governance under native satraps, Cilicia was fully integrated as a Persian province in 401 BC following a local ruler's rebellion, becoming a crucial assembly point for Achaemenid military campaigns.

Hellenistic and Roman Eras

Alexander the Great's passage through the formidable Cilician Gates in 333 BC marked a new Hellenistic chapter. Following his death, Cilicia became a contested territory among the successor kingdoms, eventually falling under Ptolemaic and then Seleucid control. The Roman period brought significant changes, with Pompey subduing the notorious Cilician pirates in 67 BC and establishing Tarsus as the capital of the Roman province. Cilicia was reorganized multiple times, eventually becoming part of the larger Syria-Cilicia Phoenice province. This era also saw Cilicia emerge as a significant center for early Christianity, notably as the birthplace of Paul the Apostle, and its cities hosted numerous Christian communities.

Islamic and Armenian Kingdoms

The 7th century witnessed the Muslim Arab invasion, transforming Cilicia into an embattled frontier zone (thughur) under the Abbasid Caliphate, with Tarsus becoming a key Arab base. By 965, the Byzantine Empire reoccupied the region, leading to increased Armenian settlement. This influx culminated in the establishment of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia around 1080, a Christian state that thrived for three centuries, providing crucial support to the Crusaders and engaging in extensive trade. Its strategic fortifications and alliances, including with the Mongols against the Mamluks, defined its complex existence until internal strife and external pressures led to its collapse in 1375.

Mamluk, Turkmen, and Ottoman Rule

Following the fall of the Armenian Kingdom, Cilicia Pedias came under the control of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1375, which authorized the Ramadanid Turkmen Emirate to administer the region while maintaining direct control over key cities. The Ramadanids, distinct from other Anatolian beyliks, developed a unique culture influenced by Bektashi traditions and Shamanic rituals, fostering cultural exchange with the Armenian community. In 1516, Selim I incorporated Cilicia into the Ottoman Empire. The region experienced significant economic growth, particularly in cotton trade, but also faced tragic events like the Adana massacre in 1909 and the Armenian genocide, leading to mass deportations.

Modern Era and Legacy

After World War I, Cilicia was briefly under French control, with aspirations for an autonomous Armenian state. However, shifting political landscapes led to French withdrawal and the region's integration into the Republic of Turkey in 1921. Subsequent policies, such as the "Law of Abandoned Properties" and the "Wealth Tax," drastically altered Cilicia's demographic and economic landscape, leading to the relocation of immigrants and the consolidation of wealth by new proprietors. Despite these transformations, Cilicia's legacy endures through its rich historical sites, diverse cultural influences, and its continued importance as an agricultural and industrial heartland in modern Turkey.

Society & Culture

Ancient Demographics & Languages

The ancient inhabitants of Cilicia were primarily Luwians, who established a significant presence in the region during the 2nd millennium BC, particularly after the Late Bronze Age collapse. This Luwian population maintained its distinct character well into the 1st millennium AD, especially in Rough Cilicia, where Luwian onomastics were prevalent. The region's strategic position also attracted other groups, including Persians, whose nobility and Persianized elites are evidenced by archaeological findings and cultural artifacts during the Achaemenid period.

Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid Cilicia was a melting pot of cultures, reflected in its linguistic and religious expressions:

Aramaic funerary inscriptions and a foundation text at Meydancık.
Coins minted at Soli and Tarsus displaying Persian, modified Persian, and non-Persian motifs.
Greek and Aramaic inscriptions, highlighting the coexistence of various cultural influences.

Social Organization

Ancient Cilicia exhibited a dual social structure. The eastern regions, particularly Plain Cilicia, were characterized by urbanized populations engaged in vibrant commercial and industrial activities. In contrast, the inhabitants of the more rugged western regions maintained tribally organized societies, leading simpler, more agrarian lifestyles. This distinction underscores the profound impact of geography on social development within the region.

Modern Communities

Today, Cilicia continues to host significant Christian communities, including Antiochian Greek Christians and Armenians, predominantly found in the major cities of Adana, İskenderun, and Mersin. These communities represent a living link to the region's long and complex religious history, which saw Cilicia as a crucial center for early Christianity and a crossroads for various faiths.

Administrative Evolution

The administrative structures of Cilicia evolved significantly over millennia. The rulers of the early Kingdom of Cilicia adopted the title Suennesis, derived from a Luwian term meaning 'dog', reflecting ancient traditions. During the Achaemenid period, satraps governed from Tarsus, overseeing vast estates and ensuring agricultural productivity and military contributions. Temple estates, such as those dedicated to Zeus at Olbē and Artemis Perasia at Kastabala, also played a significant administrative role, later adopting Greek cultural influences during the Hellenistic period. Modern Cilicia is divided into four provinces, each governed by an appointed provincial governor from Ankara, further subdivided into districts.

Demographic Landscape

Population Dynamics

Cilicia's abundant natural resources, favorable climate, and expansive plains have historically fostered a dense population. As of December 31, 2022, the region's total population stands at 6,435,986, reflecting its continued importance as a demographic center in Turkey. The distribution of this population, however, varies significantly across its constituent provinces, influenced by geographical features and economic opportunities.

Urban vs. Rural Trends

Hatay Province presents a unique demographic pattern within Cilicia, being its most rural province. Notably, Hatay is the only province in the region where the rural population is experiencing growth while the urban population is declining, a trend largely attributable to its mountainous geography. In contrast, Adana Province is the most urbanized, with a significant concentration of its populace residing in the city of Adana. Mersin Province, while also featuring substantial urban centers, maintains a larger rural population compared to Adana, owing to its distinctive long and narrow stretch of flat land nestled between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean coast.

Largest Populated Areas in Cilicia (2021 Data)

Rank	City	Province	Population	Rank	City	Province	Population
1	Adana	Adana	1,797,136	11	Silifke	Mersin	127,849
2	Mersin	Mersin	1,064,750	12	Kadirli	Osmaniye	126,941
3	Antakya	Hatay	555,833	13	Samandağ	Hatay	123,999
4	Tarsus	Mersin	347,314	14	Kırıkhan	Hatay	119,854
5	Osmaniye	Osmaniye	279,992	15	Reyhanlı	Hatay	105,309
6	İskenderun	Hatay	250,976	16	Arsuz	Hatay	99,480
7	Ceyhan	Adana	159,955	17	Düziçi	Osmaniye	85,118
8	Erdemli	Mersin	147,512	18	Anamur	Mersin	66,828
9	Kozan	Adana	132,320	19	Mut	Mersin	62,803
10	Dörtyol	Hatay	127,989	20	Altınözü	Hatay	60,861

Economic Vitality

Agricultural Abundance

Cilicia is renowned for its extraordinarily fertile plains, capable of yielding up to three harvests annually. This agricultural prowess is reflected in its status as the second richest flora globally, producing nearly all of Turkey's agricultural products, with the exceptions of hazelnut and tobacco. The region leads Turkey in soy, peanuts, and corn production, and is a major supplier of fruits and vegetables. Notably, half of Turkey's citrus exports originate from Cilicia. The town of Anamur stands out as Turkey's sole subtropical zone, cultivating bananas, mangoes, kiwis, and other exotic produce.

Cilicia is the second-largest honey producer in Turkey, after the Muğla–Aydın region.
Fishing is a significant income source in coastal towns like Samandağ, Yumurtalık, Karataş, and Bozyazı, with popular catches including gray mullet, red mullet, sea bass, and calamari.
Aquaculture farms operate in lakes such as Akyatan and Akyayan, and in the Seyhan Reservoir.
While less dominant, dairy and livestock farming also contribute to the region's diverse agricultural economy.

Mineral Resources

The geological richness of Cilicia provides a variety of valuable mineral resources. Significant zinc and lead deposits are found in the Kozan-Horzum seam, while chromium is extracted around the Aladağlar mountains. Baryte resources are concentrated near Mersin and Adana, and iron deposits are located around Feke and Saimbeyli. Hatay Province is particularly noted for its asbestos mines. Furthermore, Cilicia possesses abundant limestone reserves, supporting four lime manufacturing plants, and holds 14% of Turkey's pumice resources, making it the richest region for this mineral in the country.

Industrial Development

Cilicia was one of Turkey's earliest industrialized regions, driven by its robust agricultural sector. Today, manufacturing is primarily centered around Tarsus, Adana, and Ceyhan, with a proliferation of textile, leather tanning, and food processing plants. The region also hosts major industrial facilities, such as İsdemir, a large steel plant located in İskenderun. The petrochemical industry is rapidly expanding, particularly around the Ceyhan Oil Terminal, with new petroleum refineries and a burgeoning shipbuilding sector contributing to its industrial diversification.

Commerce and Trade Hubs

Adana serves as the commercial heart of Cilicia, housing numerous regional offices for both public and private institutions. Mersin and Antakya also play crucial roles as regional commercial centers, hosting various industry fairs and congresses. The region's strategic location is amplified by its significant seaports and energy terminals:

Mersin Seaport: The third-largest seaport in Turkey, boasting 45 piers and a capacity for 6,000 ships annually, facilitating extensive trade.
İskenderun Seaport: Primarily utilized for transfers to the Middle East and Southeastern Turkey, serving as a vital logistical gateway.
Ceyhan Oil Terminal: A critical marine transport terminal for major pipelines, including the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan and Kirkuk–Ceyhan oil pipelines, and is slated to become a natural gas terminal.
Dörtyol Oil Terminal: Supports the Batman-Dörtyol oil pipeline, which has an annual capacity of 3.5 million tons.

Tourism & Recreation

Coastal Charms

While Cilicia boasts an extensive coastline, its international tourism development lags behind neighboring Antalya Province. The region primarily caters to domestic tourism, with numerous cottages lining the coast between Silifke and Mersin, serving locals and residents from inland cities like Kayseri and Gaziantep. The stretch from Mersin to Karataş, currently farmland, is earmarked for future resort development. Coastal areas like Karataş and Yumurtalık offer cottages alongside a significant bird conservatory, while Arsuz is a popular seaside retreat for those from Antakya and İskenderun.

Mountain Plateaus

The Taurus Mountains provide a welcome escape from the hot and humid summers of the lower plains. Plateaus such as Gözne and Çamlıyayla (Namrun) in Mersin Province, Tekir, Bürümcek, and Kızıldağ in Adana Province, Zorkun in Osmaniye Province, and Soğukoluk in Hatay Province are popular high-plain resorts. These areas, often crowded during summer, offer cooler climates and a few hotels and camping sites, providing a refreshing alternative to the coastal heat.

Balneary Retreats

Cilicia is a notable destination for thermal springs, offering therapeutic and revitalizing experiences. The Hamamat Thermal Spring, located between Kırıkhan and Reyhanlı, is globally recognized for its exceptionally high sulfur content, second only to a spring in India. The Haruniye Thermal Spring, nestled on the banks of the Ceyhan River near Düziçi, provides a serene environment. These thermal springs are particularly popular for treating rheumatism. Additionally, mineral springs like Kurttepe, Alihocalı, and Ilıca in Adana Province are sought after for their detoxifying properties, while the Ottoman Palace Thermal Resort & Spa in Antakya is a premier destination for revitalization.

Spiritual Journeys

As a historical crossroads of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Cilicia is rich in religious landmarks. Tarsus, the birthplace of Paul the Apostle, holds immense significance for Christians, having been an early stronghold of the faith. The Ashab-ı Kehf cavern, one of the sites associated with the legendary Seven Sleepers, is revered by both Christians and Muslims. Antakya (ancient Antioch) is another spiritual beacon, famously where followers of Jesus Christ were first called Christians. The Church of Saint Peter near Antakya is one of Christianity's oldest churches, believed to be the home of Saint Peter, solidifying Antioch's historical role as the "cradle of Christianity" and a pivotal center for Hellenistic Judaism and early Christian development.

Notable Ancient Sites

Kizkalesi (Maiden Castle)

Perched on a small island opposite the modern township of Kizkalesi, this formidable fort was constructed in the early 12th century. It served as a crucial defensive outpost for the Armenian kings of the Rubeniyan dynasty, protecting the ancient city of Korykos (present-day Kizkalesi) from maritime threats. Its strategic location and enduring architecture offer a tangible link to Cilicia's medieval past and its role in regional power dynamics.

Heaven & Hell (Cennet ve Cehennem)

Located on a prominent hill north of Narlıkuyu, the geological formations known as "Heaven & Hell" are a striking natural wonder. These grabens, formed by millennia of erosion and geological processes, create an exotic and awe-inspiring landscape. Visitors can explore the cavern associated with the mythological giant Typhon, adding a layer of ancient lore to this remarkable site. The dramatic contrasts and unique geological features make it a compelling destination for those interested in both natural history and ancient mythology.

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References

Cilicia Campestris

Sayce, A. H. (October 1922) "The Decipherment of the Hittite Hieroglyphic Texts" The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 4: pp. 537â572, page 554

Rife, Joseph L. (2002) "Officials of the Roman Provinces in Xenophon's "Ephesiaca"" Zeitschrift fÃ¼r Papyrologie und Epigraphik 138: pp. 93â108 , page 96

See also the history of Side (Î£Î¯Î´Î·).

Wainwright, G. A. (April 1956) "Caphtor â Cappadocia" Vetus Testamentum 6(2): pp. 199â210, pages 205â206

Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.22, noted the sesame and millet.

Remarked by Robin Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer, 2008:73 and following pages

1 Kings 10:28 â "Solomon's horses were imported from Egypt and from Cilicia, where the king's merchants purchased them", noted by Fox 2008:75 note 15.

WRIGHT, N.L. 2012: "The house of Tarkondimotos: a late Hellenistic dynasty between Rome and the East." Anatolian Studies 62: 69-88.

Angus Donal Stewart, "Logic of Conquest", p. 8. "The Armenian king saw an alliance with the Mongols â or, more accurately, swift and peaceful subjection to them â as the best course of action."

Prof. Dr. YÄ±lmaz KURT, "RamazanoÄullarÄ±ânÄ±n Sonu: Adanaâda ÃemÅid Bey Ä°syÈnÄ± (1606â1607)", Tarihin Ä°Ã§inden, Ankara Ãniversitesi

Moumjian, Garabet K. "Cilicia Under French Administration: Armenian Aspirations, Turkish Resistance, and French Stratagems" in Armenian Cilicia, pp. 457â489.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Cilicia Wikipedia page

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Cilicia Unveiled

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Cilicia: An Overview 🗺️

📍 Geographical Context

🌐 Regional Borders

👥 Demographics and Administration

📜 Etymological Roots

Geographical Divisions ⛰️

🏞️ Rough Cilicia (Cilicia Trachea)

🌾 Plain Cilicia (Cilicia Pedias)

☀️ Climate and Hydrology

🪨 Geological Foundations

A Tapestry of Eras ⏳

🗿 Prehistoric and Bronze Age Foundations

⚔️ Iron Age and Achaemenid Dominion

🏛️ Hellenistic and Roman Eras

🕌 Islamic and Armenian Kingdoms

👑 Mamluk, Turkmen, and Ottoman Rule

🇹🇷 Modern Era and Legacy

Society & Culture 🎭

🗣️ Ancient Demographics & Languages

🏙️ Social Organization

⛪ Modern Communities

🏛️ Administrative Evolution

Demographic Landscape 📊

📈 Population Dynamics

🏘️ Urban vs. Rural Trends

Largest Populated Areas in Cilicia (2021 Data)

Economic Vitality 💰

🍎 Agricultural Abundance

⛏️ Mineral Resources

🏭 Industrial Development

🚢 Commerce and Trade Hubs

Tourism & Recreation 🏖️

🌊 Coastal Charms

🏞️ Mountain Plateaus

♨️ Balneary Retreats

🙏 Spiritual Journeys

Notable Ancient Sites 🏛️

🏰 Kizkalesi (Maiden Castle)

⛰️ Heaven & Hell (Cennet ve Cehennem)

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Cilicia: An Overview

Geographical Context

Regional Borders

Demographics and Administration

Etymological Roots

Geographical Divisions

Rough Cilicia (Cilicia Trachea)

Plain Cilicia (Cilicia Pedias)

Climate and Hydrology

Geological Foundations

A Tapestry of Eras

Prehistoric and Bronze Age Foundations

Iron Age and Achaemenid Dominion

Hellenistic and Roman Eras

Islamic and Armenian Kingdoms

Mamluk, Turkmen, and Ottoman Rule

Modern Era and Legacy

Society & Culture

Ancient Demographics & Languages

Social Organization

Modern Communities

Administrative Evolution

Demographic Landscape

Population Dynamics

Urban vs. Rural Trends

Economic Vitality

Agricultural Abundance

Mineral Resources

Industrial Development

Commerce and Trade Hubs

Tourism & Recreation

Coastal Charms

Mountain Plateaus

Balneary Retreats

Spiritual Journeys

Notable Ancient Sites

Kizkalesi (Maiden Castle)

Heaven & Hell (Cennet ve Cehennem)

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice