What is the fundamental definition of a dialect in linguistics?

In linguistics, a dialect is defined as a variety of a language spoken by a particular group of people. This encompasses both dominant, standardized varieties and vernacular, unwritten, or non-standardized forms used by specific communities.

How do non-standard dialects of a language with a writing system relate to its standardized written form?

Non-standard dialects of a language with a writing system operate at varying degrees of distance from the standardized written form. This means their spoken or written patterns may differ from the official or commonly accepted written version of the language.

What characteristics define a 'standard dialect' or 'standardized language'?

A standard dialect, also known as a standardized language, is distinguished by institutional support. This support can include government recognition, formal presentation in education as the 'correct' form, monitoring of usage, published grammars and dictionaries, and an extensive formal literature.

Can you provide an example of a language supported by an institutional body?

The French language is cited as an example of a standardized language supported by an institution, the Académie Française, which helps regulate and maintain its norms.

What is a nonstandard dialect, and how does it differ from a standard dialect?

A nonstandard dialect possesses a complete grammar and vocabulary but typically lacks the institutional support afforded to standard dialects. While it functions as a complete linguistic system, it is not usually recognized or promoted by formal institutions in the same way.

How can the terms 'language' and 'dialect' be subjective and debated?

The definitions of 'language' and 'dialect' can overlap and are often subject to debate, with their differentiation frequently grounded in arbitrary or sociopolitical motives. This means that what one group considers a distinct language, another might classify as a dialect.

What is a sociolect, and how is it related to the concept of dialect?

A sociolect is a dialect associated with a particular social class. It illustrates how dialects can be defined not only by geography but also by social stratification within a community.

What is an ethnolect, and how does it relate to dialect classification?

An ethnolect is a dialect associated with a particular ethnic group. This highlights how shared ethnicity can lead to distinct linguistic varieties, or dialects, within a broader language.

What are alternative terms used for geographical or regional dialects?

Alternative terms for geographical or regional dialects include 'regiolect,' 'regionalect,' 'geolect,' and 'topolect.' These terms specifically denote speech patterns tied to a particular geographic area.

What is the primary challenge in linguistically distinguishing between two dialects and two separate languages?

There is no single, universally accepted criterion for distinguishing between two dialects of the same language and two distinct languages. This lack of a definitive measure makes the classification subjective and dependent on the criteria used.

How does linguistic distance help in categorizing language varieties?

Linguistic distance measures the differences between spoken or written forms of language. A low linguistic distance suggests varieties are dialects of the same language, while a high distance indicates they might be separate languages or belong to different language families.

What is the criterion of mutual intelligibility for distinguishing dialects from languages?

Mutual intelligibility suggests that two varieties are dialects of the same language if speakers of one can understand and be understood by speakers of the other. If this mutual understanding is significantly lacking, they are often considered different languages.

What is a dialect continuum, and how does it challenge the mutual intelligibility criterion?

A dialect continuum is a sequence of language varieties where each is mutually intelligible with the next, but not necessarily with varieties further down the chain. This gradual transition makes it difficult to draw a clear line between dialects and languages based solely on intelligibility.

How does SIL International define a 'dialect cluster' and a 'language' using intelligibility?

SIL International defines a 'dialect cluster' as a central variety plus other varieties whose speakers understand the central one above a certain threshold (typically 70-85%). If this threshold is high, the cluster is designated as a 'language,' focusing on coverage rather than strict mutual intelligibility among all peripheral varieties.

What is the sociolinguistic concept of 'linguistic authority' in differentiating dialects?

The sociolinguistic concept of linguistic authority suggests that two varieties are dialects of the same language if their speakers would defer to the same authority (like a dictionary or expert) for questions about their language. Varieties that are 'autonomous' have their own authority, while 'heteronomous' varieties depend on another's.

How did Heinz Kloss categorize languages like Danish and Norwegian using 'ausbau' and 'abstand'?

Heinz Kloss categorized languages like Danish and Norwegian as 'ausbau' languages, meaning they have developed distinct standards and institutions, even if they retain significant mutual intelligibility ('abstand' refers to linguistic separation).

What is a 'dialect cluster' according to the Handbook of African Languages?

The term 'dialect cluster' was introduced to describe a group of related varieties that share considerable, though incomplete, mutual intelligibility, but where no single variety dominates the others. It serves as a classificatory unit at the same level as a language.

In what ways can the term 'dialect' acquire a pejorative connotation?

Colloquially, particularly in countries like Italy, France, and the Philippines, the term 'dialect' can carry a pejorative undertone. It often implies a socially or politically subordinated status compared to a dominant official language, sometimes referring to varieties that evolved separately rather than as branches of the dominant language.

How do political factors influence the classification of speech varieties as languages or dialects?

Political factors significantly influence language classification. A group speaking a distinct 'language' may be seen as a separate 'people' with a stronger claim to statehood, while speakers of a 'dialect' might be viewed as a subgroup needing only regional autonomy. This is famously captured by the saying, 'A language is a dialect with an army and navy.'

What is the difference between a dialect and an accent?

While many linguists subsume accent differences under dialect, generally, 'accent' refers specifically to variations in pronunciation. 'Dialect,' on the other hand, encompasses variations in pronunciation as well as specific differences in grammar and vocabulary.

How do spoken Arabic dialects relate to Modern Standard Arabic?

Spoken dialects of Arabic share the same writing system and commonly use Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) as their prestige dialect for written communication. MSA serves as a unifying written form across the diverse spoken varieties.

What is the status of Swiss German dialects compared to Standard German in Switzerland?

In Switzerland, Swiss German dialects are the primary everyday language in most situations, while Standard German is used mainly in education, media, and with non-Swiss German speakers. Many Swiss German speakers perceive Standard German as a foreign language.

Why is Italy often cited as an example of the colloquial use of the term 'dialect'?

Italy is often cited because many regional languages, which evolved separately from Latin and have distinct histories, are colloquially referred to as 'dialects' of Italian. This reflects a sociopolitical context where the Tuscan-based standard language became dominant, overshadowing other historically significant regional languages.

How did the Russian Empire classify the Ukrainian language?

The Tsarist Government of the Russian Empire claimed that Ukrainian was merely a dialect of Russian, or a 'Polonized dialect,' rather than a distinct language. This classification was made despite the significant historical differences that had developed between Ukrainian and Russian dialects over centuries.

What is the political significance of classifying speech varieties as 'languages' versus 'dialects'?

The distinction can be politically significant, as recognizing a speech variety as a 'language' may bolster claims for national identity and statehood, whereas classifying it as a 'dialect' might imply it is a subordinate part of a larger linguistic and national group.

What are some alternative terms linguists use to refer to speech varieties?

Linguists may use terms like 'variety' or 'lect' to refer to speech patterns without committing to a language or dialect classification. A more general term is 'languoid,' which encompasses dialects, languages, and groups of languages regardless of their relationship.

How do Hindi and Urdu differ in their written and formal aspects, despite spoken mutual intelligibility?

While spoken Hindi and Urdu are largely mutually intelligible, they differ in their written scripts (Devanagari for Hindi, Perso-Arabic for Urdu) and formal vocabulary. Hindi draws more from Sanskrit, while Urdu incorporates more Persian and Arabic vocabulary.

What is the significance of the phrase 'A language is a dialect with an army and navy'?

This aphorism highlights the crucial role of political power and statehood in establishing a variety of speech as a 'language.' It suggests that the distinction between language and dialect is often not purely linguistic but is heavily influenced by sociopolitical factors and national identity.

What is the relationship between the Florentine dialect and Modern Italian?

Modern Italian is heavily based on the Florentine dialect of Tuscan. This dialect gained prominence through the works of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, gradually becoming the *lingua franca* of the educated and upper classes before evolving into the national language.

How does the classification of Macedonian speech varieties relate to Bulgarian?

Bulgarian linguists often classify Macedonian as a dialect of Bulgarian, reflecting a political stance that North Macedonia should be part of Bulgaria. Sociolinguists agree that this classification is political rather than purely linguistic, as dialect continua do not allow for absolute distinctions.

What is the situation with 'Moldovan' language classification?

The classification of 'Moldovan' has been politically charged, with some in Moldova advocating for it as a separate language from Romanian for political reasons, despite linguistic consensus that it is essentially Romanian. In 2023, Moldova officially recognized Romanian as its state language.

Why are the spoken varieties of Chinese often mutually unintelligible?

Chinese characters, being logograms, do not always indicate pronunciation, and regional pronunciations and grammars have diverged significantly over time. This divergence has led to spoken varieties like Mandarin and Cantonese being mutually unintelligible, despite sharing a common writing system.

What factors contribute to the prevalence of dialects in different regions of Germany?

The prevalence of dialects in Germany varies. They are generally less common in Northern Germany compared to the South, less common in cities than in the countryside, and less common in public settings than in familiar environments.

What is the distinction between 'ausbau' and 'abstand' languages?

'Abstand' languages are linguistically distinct from each other, while 'ausbau' languages have developed separate standards and institutions, even if they share mutual intelligibility with related languages. This distinction helps explain why some mutually intelligible varieties are considered separate languages.

How did conscription during World War I affect the diffusion of Italian?

The conscription of Italian men from diverse linguistic backgrounds during World War I forced soldiers to communicate in a common tongue. This exposure facilitated the spread of Italian among soldiers who previously spoke only regional languages or dialects.

What is the difference between a dialect and a language according to the 'A language is a dialect with an army and navy' saying?

This saying implies that the distinction between a dialect and a language is often determined by political power and national recognition, rather than purely linguistic criteria. A variety gains the status of 'language' when it is associated with a state or nation that supports it.

What is the relationship between regional Italian varieties and Standard Italian?

While many regional languages of Italy are colloquially called 'dialects,' variations of Standard Italian specific to regions, known as 'regional Italian,' have also emerged. These regional variations are derived from Italian, sometimes influenced by local native languages and accents.

What are the major language families spoken in Italy besides the Italo-Dalmatian group?

Besides the Italo-Dalmatian group (which includes Italian), other major language families in Italy include the Gallo-Italic group (spoken in Northern Italy), Rhaeto-Romance languages (like Friulian and Ladin), Germanic languages (like Cimbrian and Walser German), Albanian, Hellenic, Serbo-Croatian, and Slovene.

How does the Eastern Lombard dialect's intelligibility compare to Italian and Catalan?

Eastern Lombard, a Gallo-Italic language, may have more mutual intelligibility with Catalan or French than with Italian or Sicilian. This illustrates how linguistic relationships can sometimes cross national language boundaries.

What is the controversy surrounding the classification of dialects within Serbo-Croatian?

The Serbo-Croatian language has mutually intelligible variants like Serbian and Croatian, both based on the Shtokavian dialect. However, other dialects within the region, such as Torlakian, Kajkavian, and Chakavian, are not always mutually intelligible with Shtokavian, leading to disputes over their classification within or outside Serbo-Croatian.

What is the role of 'Darijas' in North African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco?

In North Africa, the spoken varieties known as 'Darijas' are sometimes considered distinct from other Arabic dialects. While Literary Arabic remains the official liturgical language, Darijas have gained significant influence in cultural domains like theatre, music, and media.

What was the Russian Empire's stance on the Belarusian language?

Similar to its stance on Ukrainian, the Russian Empire claimed that the Belarusian language was merely a dialect of Russian, not a distinct language. This political classification aimed to consolidate linguistic and cultural identity under Russian dominance.

How did the 'Spring of Nations' influence cultural movements in Ukraine?

The 'Spring of Nations' in Europe inspired cultural societies like the 'Hromada' in Ukraine. These societies acted similarly to earlier Orthodox fraternities and promoted cultural movements, contributing to the development of Ukrainian identity and language.

What is the linguistic situation in Lebanon regarding Lebanese Arabic?

In Lebanon, some Christian populations view Lebanese Arabic as a distinct language rather than a dialect of Arabic. During the civil war, there were instances of using Lebanese Arabic officially and employing the Latin script for writing it, further differentiating it from standard Arabic.

What is the significance of Malay being a 'pluricentric' language and a 'macrolanguage'?

Malay is considered 'pluricentric' because it has multiple standardized national varieties (like Malaysian and Indonesian) used in different nation-states. It's a 'macrolanguage' because these varieties, while structurally similar, differ in lexicon and phonetics, yet are often grouped under a single umbrella term.

How did the unification of Italy impact the status of regional languages?

Following Italy's unification in the 1860s, Italian became the official national language. Other regional languages, despite their distinct historical development, were institutionally regarded as 'dialects' subordinate to Italian and were often associated with a lack of education.

What is the difference between 'dialect' and 'variety' in linguistic terminology?

While 'dialect' often carries sociopolitical connotations, 'variety' is a more neutral linguistic term used to refer to any distinct form of a language, regardless of its status or prestige. Linguists often prefer 'variety' to avoid the loaded implications of 'dialect'.

What is the historical context for the classification of southern Chinese spoken varieties?

Due to historical migrations southward, regional languages in southern China, such as Gan, Xiang, Wu, Min, Yue, and Hakka, often show traces of Old or Middle Chinese. These varieties have developed to the extent that they are frequently mutually unintelligible with Mandarin.

What is the 'Hindi-Urdu controversy' regarding formal vocabulary?

The Hindi-Urdu controversy refers to the divergence in formal vocabulary between Hindi, which draws heavily from Sanskrit, and Urdu, which incorporates more Persian and Arabic terms. This difference, alongside the use of different scripts, contributes to their distinction as separate languages in formal contexts, despite spoken mutual intelligibility.

What is the status of Bhojpuri in India's linguistic landscape?

Bhojpuri, spoken by over 50 million people in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, does not have official status in either state or in India's Eighth Schedule. It is often classified as a dialect of Hindi, highlighting how large linguistic communities can be categorized under a dominant language.

Dialect Wiki: The Tapestry of Tongues: Understanding Dialects

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Defining the Dialect

Linguistic Variety

A dialect is fundamentally a specific variety of a language spoken by a particular group of people. This encompasses not only dominant and standardized forms but also vernacular, unwritten, or less formally recognized varieties, often found in developing nations or isolated communities.^[3]^[4]^[5] The term is frequently applied to regional speech patterns, but it can also be defined by social factors such as class or ethnicity, leading to terms like 'sociolect' or 'ethnolect'.^[14]^[15]

Distance from Standard

Dialects exist on a spectrum of linguistic distance from a language's standardized written form. The degree of difference can range from minor phonetic variations to significant divergences in grammar and vocabulary.^[28] This concept of linguistic distance is crucial for understanding language families and the relationships between languages and their constituent dialects.

The Ambiguity of Terms

Distinguishing between a "language" and a "dialect" is notoriously complex and often subjective, lacking a single, universally accepted linguistic criterion. Sociopolitical factors, historical context, and perceived prestige frequently influence these classifications, leading to debates where the terms can be used arbitrarily or even pejoratively.^[8]^[18]

Standard vs. Nonstandard

Institutional Support

A standard dialect, or standardized language, is characterized by significant institutional support. This typically includes formal recognition by governments, its use in education as the "correct" form, the existence of published grammars and dictionaries, and a substantial body of formal literature.^[5]^[6]^[7] The French language, supported by the Académie Française, serves as a prime example.

Vernacular Varieties

Conversely, a nonstandard dialect, or vernacular, possesses a complete grammar and vocabulary but typically lacks this institutional backing. The distinction between standard and nonstandard varieties is often arbitrary, influenced by social, political, cultural, or historical considerations, or simply by prevalence and prominence.^[5]^[6]^[7] In common usage, "dialect" can sometimes carry a pejorative connotation, referring specifically to varieties with lower social status, lacking standardization, or rarely used in writing.

Categorizing Varieties

Regional Dialects (Regiolects)

Dialects are most commonly defined by geographical boundaries, leading to terms like 'regiolect' or 'geolect'. These varieties reflect the linguistic patterns specific to a particular region or locality.^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]

Social and Ethnic Dialects

Beyond geography, dialects can also be associated with specific social strata or ethnic groups. A dialect tied to social class is termed a sociolect, while one linked to an ethnic group is an ethnolect.^[14] These classifications highlight the intricate relationship between language use and social identity.

Historical Context

The historical development and perceived purity of a language variety can also influence its classification. Early dialectologists, for instance, sometimes excluded recently emerged or migrant-influenced varieties from their definition of "true" dialects, underscoring the dynamic nature of linguistic categorization.^[21]

Linguistic Distance

Measuring Differences

Linguistic distance quantifies the differences between language varieties. A low distance suggests a close relationship, often leading to classification as dialects of the same language. Conversely, significant differences in syntax, phonology, and lexicon result in a high linguistic distance, indicating separate languages or distinct branches within a language family.^[28]

Language Families

This metric is fundamental in establishing language families and identifying sibling languages. For example, Dutch and German, exhibiting relatively low linguistic distance, are considered siblings within the West Germanic group. Similarly, French and Spanish, while closer to each other than to West Germanic languages, are siblings in the Romance branch.^[28] Varieties with minimal linguistic distance are perceived as closely resembling their parent language, reinforcing the dialect classification.

Mutual Intelligibility

Understanding Across Varieties

A key linguistic criterion posits that two varieties are dialects of the same language if their speakers can mutually understand each other. However, this criterion faces challenges, particularly with dialect continua, where adjacent varieties are intelligible, but distant ones are not.^[29]

Empirical Evidence and Thresholds

While the degree of intelligibility can vary, recent research supports its utility in distinguishing languages and dialects. Organizations like SIL International use intelligibility thresholds (typically 70-85%) to define 'dialect clusters' as languages, acknowledging that perfect mutuality might not always be necessary.^[30]^[31]

Sociolinguistic Perspectives

Linguistic Authority

Sociolinguistics introduces the concept of 'linguistic authority'. Varieties are considered dialects of the same language if their speakers defer to a common authority (e.g., a standard dictionary) for linguistic queries. Varieties that rely on a dominant standard are termed 'heteronomous', while the dominant standard itself is 'autonomous'.^[32]

Prestige and Autonomy

The designation of a variety as a "language" versus a "dialect" is often tied to its prestige, autonomy, and the presence of a supporting state. Varieties lacking these attributes, even if linguistically distinct, may be colloquially referred to as dialects.^[48] This highlights how social and political factors are intrinsically linked to linguistic classification.

Political Dimensions

Nationhood and Identity

National boundaries and political aspirations significantly shape the language-dialect distinction. A distinct "language" can bolster a group's claim to nationhood and statehood, whereas a "dialect" might imply a subordinate status within a larger national identity.^[40]

The Army and Navy Aphorism

The famous aphorism, "A language is a dialect with an army and navy," attributed to Max Weinreich, succinctly captures the political reality underlying linguistic classification. It underscores that power and statehood often determine whether a linguistic variety is recognized as a distinct language.^[59] This perspective suggests that purely linguistic definitions may be insufficient without considering sociopolitical contexts.

Reclassification for Political Ends

Historical examples demonstrate deliberate reclassification of speech varieties for political purposes. The case of Moldovan, initially presented as distinct from Romanian, or the classification of Ukrainian and Belarusian as dialects of Russian by the Tsarist regime, illustrate how political agendas can influence linguistic categorization.^[64]

Illustrative Cases

Arabic and German

Arabic exhibits significant variation across regions (Zones I, II, III), with spoken dialects sharing a writing system and Modern Standard Arabic as a prestige dialect.^[51] German dialects vary widely, with Northern Germany showing less dialect use than the South, and Swiss German dialects functioning as the primary vernacular.^[52]

Italy's Linguistic Landscape

Italy presents a complex scenario where numerous regional languages, often mutually unintelligible, are colloquially termed "dialects" of Italian. This reflects historical Italianization and the dominance of Tuscan-based Italian as a national language, despite the parallel development of these distinct Romance languages.^[44]^[45]

Global Variations

Across the globe, similar dynamics are observed:

Balkans: The classification of Serbo-Croatian varieties (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin) and the relationship between Macedonian and Bulgarian highlight political influences on linguistic categorization.^[58]
Greater China: The divergence of spoken Chinese varieties, often mutually unintelligible, contrasts with the standardized written script and Mandarin as the official language.^[60]
Hindi/Urdu: While colloquially mutually intelligible, formal vocabulary and script diverge, with Hindi drawing from Sanskrit and Urdu from Persian/Arabic.^[65]

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References

Oxford Living Dictionaries â English. Retrieved 18 January 2019.

Wolfram, Walt and Schilling, Natalie. 2016. American English: Dialects and Variation. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, p. 184.

MuljaÄiÄ, Å½. (1997). The relationships between the dialect and the standard language. In M. Maiden, M. Maiden, & M. Parry (Eds.), The Dialects of Italy (1st ed.). essay, Routledge.

"Languoid" at Glottopedia.com

Â«The often used term "Italian dialects" may create the false impression that the dialects are varieties of the standard Italian language.Â» Martin Maiden, M. Mair Parry (1997), The Dialects of Italy, Psychology Press, p. 2.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Dialect Wikipedia page

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This content has been generated by an Artificial Intelligence, drawing exclusively from the provided source material. It is intended for academic and educational purposes, aiming to present complex linguistic concepts in an accessible manner suitable for advanced students.

This is not professional linguistic advice. The information presented is based on a specific dataset and may not encompass all nuances or the most current academic discourse. Always consult peer-reviewed literature and authoritative linguistic resources for comprehensive and up-to-date understanding. The AI and its creators are not responsible for any interpretations or actions taken based on this information.

The Tapestry of Tongues

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining the Dialect 🗣️

💬 Linguistic Variety

↔️ Distance from Standard

🤔 The Ambiguity of Terms

Standard vs. Nonstandard ⚖️

🏛️ Institutional Support

👥 Vernacular Varieties

Categorizing Varieties 🏷️

📍 Regional Dialects (Regiolects)

🧑‍🤝‍🧑 Social and Ethnic Dialects

📜 Historical Context

Linguistic Distance 📏

🔗 Measuring Differences

🌳 Language Families

Mutual Intelligibility 👂

🤝 Understanding Across Varieties

📊 Empirical Evidence and Thresholds

Sociolinguistic Perspectives 🌐

⚖️ Linguistic Authority

⭐ Prestige and Autonomy

Political Dimensions 🏛️

🚩 Nationhood and Identity

🛡️ The Army and Navy Aphorism

🔄 Reclassification for Political Ends

Illustrative Cases 🌍

📜 Arabic and German

🇮🇹 Italy's Linguistic Landscape

🌏 Global Variations

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining the Dialect

Linguistic Variety

Distance from Standard

The Ambiguity of Terms

Standard vs. Nonstandard

Institutional Support

Vernacular Varieties

Categorizing Varieties

Regional Dialects (Regiolects)

Social and Ethnic Dialects

Historical Context

Linguistic Distance

Measuring Differences

Language Families

Mutual Intelligibility

Understanding Across Varieties

Empirical Evidence and Thresholds

Sociolinguistic Perspectives

Linguistic Authority

Prestige and Autonomy

Political Dimensions

Nationhood and Identity

The Army and Navy Aphorism

Reclassification for Political Ends

Illustrative Cases

Arabic and German

Italy's Linguistic Landscape

Global Variations

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice