What is the dowry system in India?

The dowry system in India refers to the practice where the bride's family provides durable goods, cash, and property to the groom, his parents, and relatives as a condition of the marriage. This practice is also known as 'dahej' in Hindi and 'jahiz' in Urdu.

What was the traditional purpose of dowry in India?

Traditionally, dowry was intended to serve as the inheritance for the daughter, acknowledging that her ties to her parental family were considered severed upon marriage. It could also function as a form of consideration or status equalizer between the marrying families, sometimes facilitating upward mobility.

What are the potential negative consequences of the dowry system for the bride's family?

The dowry system can impose a significant financial burden on the bride's family. In some instances, unmet dowry demands have led to severe crimes against women, ranging from emotional abuse and physical injury to death.

What legal measures exist in India to prohibit the dowry system?

India has enacted laws to prohibit the payment and demand of dowry, including the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961. Additionally, Sections 304B and 498A of the Indian Penal Code address crimes related to dowry, such as dowry deaths and cruelty.

How do scholars view the historical origins of dowry in South Asia?

The historical origins of dowry in South Asia are debated among scholars. While some believe the practice existed in ancient times, others, like Michael Witzel, argue that ancient Indian literature suggests dowry was not a significant practice during the Vedic period.

What did ancient Indian texts suggest regarding marriage payments, according to MacDonell and Keith?

MacDonell and Keith's interpretation of ancient Indian texts suggests that bridewealth, rather than dowry, was often paid by the groom, particularly in marriage types like 'brahma' and 'daiva'. Dowry was reportedly more common only in cases where the bride had a physical defect.

What did Arrian and Megasthenes observe about dowry practices during Alexander the Great's conquest of India?

Eyewitness accounts from the time of Alexander the Great's conquest (around 300 BCE), particularly from Arrian and Megasthenes, suggest that dowry practices were absent or infrequent enough not to be noticed. Arrian noted that these ancient Indian people cared more about a bride's beauty than her dowry.

What was Al-Biruni's observation on marriage customs in India around the 11th century?

Al-Biruni, a Persian scholar who lived in India in the 11th century, observed that no dowry was settled between parties during marriages. He noted that the man gave a present to the wife as he saw fit, and a marriage gift that the wife could return if she chose not to marry.

How was Bombay transferred to the British Crown in relation to dowry?

The seven islands of Bombay were part of the dowry given to Charles II of England as part of his marriage treaty with Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal, in 1661. This dowry transfer led to the British East India Company taking control of Bombay.

What are some of the suggested causes for the prevalence of the dowry system in India?

Suggested causes for the dowry system include economic factors, social factors like hypergamy (marrying a woman to someone of higher social status), weak legal inheritance laws that disadvantage daughters, and the need for women's financial security within marriage. Parental expectations also play a significant role.

How is hypergamy linked to the dowry system among upper castes in India?

Among upper castes, marriages tend to be hypergamous, meaning women often marry men of higher social status. This practice is seen as a driver for dowry payments, as families may offer dowries to enhance their prestige by marrying their daughters into higher social strata.

What was the impact of the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 on inheritance and dowry?

The Hindu Succession Act of 1956 granted daughters equal legal inheritance rights to their father's wealth, similar to sons, for Hindu, Sikh, and Jain families. Despite this, dowry continued as a social mechanism for distributing parental property to a daughter at the time of marriage, rather than through the legal inheritance process.

How did the kinship structure in North India contribute to the dowry system?

In North India, the patrilocal system, where a bride moves to live with her husband's family, contributes to dowry. As the bride becomes a non-related member of her new family, dowry may be seen as a form of premortem inheritance for her.

How does marriage kinship in South India differ from North India regarding dowry?

In South India, marriages are often conducted within closer family relations, such as with cross-cousins, and brides may remain physically closer to their families. Brides may also have the ability to inherit land, making them more valuable and potentially decreasing the prevalence of dowry in favor of bride price systems.

What did a 1980 study reveal about generational differences in attitudes towards dowry?

A 1980 study by Rao indicated a generational gap in attitudes towards dowry, where 75% of students felt dowry was unimportant, but a significant 40% of their parents still expected it. This suggests that while younger generations might be changing their views, older generations continue to uphold the custom.

How is dowry practiced among Indian Muslims?

Among Indian Muslims, dowry is known as 'jahez'. It typically includes essential items for the bride and her married life, as well as valuable goods, clothes, and money for the groom's family, often settled after bargaining. This 'jahez' is distinct from 'mahr', the dower required by Sharia law to be gifted to the bride.

How does the prevalence of dowry vary by geography and class in India?

Dowry prevalence varies geographically and by socioeconomic class. In Northern states, all classes are more likely to participate, with dowry often in the form of material goods. In Southern states, bride price is more common. Upper-class families are also more likely to engage in the dowry system than lower classes, possibly due to economic exclusion of women from the labor market.

What is the "menace" of dowry as described in the text?

The "menace" of dowry arises when the groom's family attempts to dictate the quantity and specific items of gifts, exerting coercion on the bride's family. It refers to what is extracted from the bride or her parents, rather than voluntary wedding presents.

What types of crimes are associated with the dowry system in India?

Dowry-related crimes include physical violence, emotional abuse, torture, harassment, abetment to suicide, and dowry death, which can involve bride burning or murder. These crimes often target newly married women who are economically and socially tied to their husbands' families.

What is "bride burning" in the context of dowry deaths?

Bride burning is a form of dowry death where a bride is doused in kerosene and set ablaze by her husband or his family, often as a result of dissatisfaction with the dowry received. It is a tragic outcome of escalating domestic abuse and harassment.

What is the significance of Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code concerning dowry?

Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) was introduced to address dowry harassment and cruelty by husbands and their families. It initially mandated automatic arrest upon a wife's complaint, though this provision was later modified by the Supreme Court to require magistrate approval for arrests.

What is Section 304B of the Indian Penal Code related to?

Section 304B of the Indian Penal Code specifically addresses dowry deaths. It creates a legal presumption that if a woman dies unnaturally within seven years of marriage and had been subjected to dowry demands prior to her death, her husband and his family are presumed to have caused her death.

What was the "Runaway Grooms" phenomenon exposed by a 2005 documentary?

The 2005 documentary "Runaway Grooms" exposed a phenomenon where Indo-Canadian men would travel to India to find brides, secure their dowry, and then abandon the women, returning to Canada without them. This highlights a fraudulent exploitation of the dowry system.

How is cruelty defined as a dowry crime in India?

Cruelty, in the context of dowry crimes, is defined as torture or harassment inflicted upon a woman with the aim of forcing her or her family to meet demands for property or valuable security. This can include verbal abuse or physical beatings.

What is the purpose of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005?

The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, was enacted to provide legal protection to women against various forms of domestic violence, including physical, emotional, economic, and sexual abuse, as well as intimidation and coercion. It aims to reduce domestic violence and uphold women's rights.

How can abetment to suicide be linked to dowry-related abuse?

Abetment to suicide is a dowry crime where continuous abuse, threats, or harassment by a husband and his family drives a woman to commit suicide. The law considers acts that intentionally advise, encourage, or assist in suicide as criminal in such contexts.

What did the Supreme Court rule in 2014 regarding arrests under Section 498A of the IPC?

In the 2014 case of Arnesh Kumar v. State of Bihar, the Supreme Court ruled that arrests under Section 498A of the IPC cannot be made automatically without a magistrate's approval. This decision aimed to prevent the misuse of the law and arbitrary arrests.

Why did some feminists criticize the Arnesh Kumar ruling?

Some feminists criticized the Arnesh Kumar ruling because they believed it weakened the negotiating power of women in dowry-related disputes, potentially making it harder for victims to seek justice and protection.

What is the general criticism regarding the effectiveness of India's dowry laws?

Criticisms include the laws being ineffective due to vague statutes, poor enforcement by police and courts, and societal norms that keep women subservient and compliant with dowry demands. Many women also fear implicating their husbands due to potential repercussions, and legal processes can be extremely lengthy, making it difficult to prove cases.

What specific types of violence are mentioned as dowry crimes?

The text mentions physical violence, emotional abuse, torture, harassment, abetment to suicide, and dowry death, which includes bride burning and murder, as types of dowry crimes.

How does the concept of "woman's property" (stridhan) relate to the historical practice of dowry?

Historically, dowry was sometimes registered in the bride's name and considered her 'stridhan' or woman's property. This was intended to provide her with economic security, especially when women had limited rights to inherit property from their natal families.

What is the significance of the "Nisha Sharma Lawsuit" in the context of dowry cases?

The Nisha Sharma lawsuit was a high-profile anti-dowry case that brought attention to the issue. However, it later emerged that the charges were fabricated, leading to the acquittal of the accused, which highlighted the potential for misuse of such legal actions.

What specific allegations did Atul Subhash make in his suicide note regarding his marital issues?

In his suicide note, Atul Subhash attributed his distress to marital issues and divorce proceedings, naming his estranged wife, mother-in-law, and brother-in-law as sources of suffering. He also alleged that a judge demanded a bribe to settle his case.

What is the main argument of the Save Indian Family Foundation?

The Save Indian Family Foundation is an organization founded to combat the alleged abuses of Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code, suggesting a focus on addressing perceived misapplications of anti-dowry laws.

What is the difference between 'dahej' and 'mahr' in Islamic marriage customs in India?

In Indian Muslim contexts, 'dahej' is the dowry provided by the bride's family to the groom's family, while 'mahr' is the dower that Islamic law requires the groom to give to the bride. They are distinct financial components of a marriage.

What does the term "premortem inheritance" refer to in the context of dowry?

Premortem inheritance, in relation to dowry, refers to the practice where parental property is distributed to a daughter at the time of her marriage (as dowry) rather than after the parent's death. This could also mean that once a woman receives dowry gifts, she might be cut off from further inheritance from her natal family.

What is the general criticism regarding the enforcement of dowry laws in India?

A significant criticism is that India's dowry laws are not effectively enforced by the police or courts. This ineffectiveness is attributed to factors like vague statutes, the lengthy judicial process, and societal pressures that often shield perpetrators.

What is the meaning of 'Cognisable offence' in relation to dowry laws and police action?

A cognizable offense is one where the police can arrest a suspect without a warrant and start an investigation without the magistrate's order. In the context of dowry laws like Section 498A, this nature of the offense meant police were bound to register cases, which critics argue led to potential misuse.

What is the significance of the term "dowry death" in Indian law?

Dowry death, as defined in Section 304B of the Indian Penal Code, refers to the death of a woman caused by burns or bodily injury, or occurring otherwise than under normal circumstances, within seven years of her marriage, if it is shown that soon before her death she was subjected to cruelty or harassment by her husband or any relative of her husband for, or in connection with, any demand for dowry.

What was the Supreme Court's observation in the Preeti Gupta case regarding anti-dowry laws?

In the Preeti Gupta case, the Supreme Court noted the misuse of anti-dowry laws and recommended more detailed investigations into such cases, highlighting concerns about the application of these laws.

What is the role of parental expectations in the continuation of the dowry system?

Parental expectations are a significant factor in the persistence of the dowry system. Studies have shown that even when younger generations express negative views on dowry, their parents may still expect or demand it, indicating a strong influence of tradition and social pressure.

What legal presumption is created by Section 113B of the Indian Evidence Act regarding dowry deaths?

Section 113B of the Indian Evidence Act creates a presumption that if a woman dies an unnatural death within seven years of her marriage, and it can be shown that she was subjected to dowry demands, then the husband and his family are presumed to have caused her death. This presumption aids in prosecuting dowry death cases.

What criticism did women's groups raise about the vagueness of India's dowry harassment laws?

Women's groups have criticized India's dowry harassment laws for being too vague, which can hinder effective prosecution. This vagueness, combined with poor enforcement and societal norms, contributes to the challenges faced by victims seeking justice.

How did the Indian government attempt to amend Section 498A of the IPC?

Following Supreme Court observations on the misuse of Section 498A, the Indian government considered amendments based on suggestions from the Law Commission and the Justice Malimath committee. Proposed changes included making the offense compoundable to facilitate dispute settlement between couples.

What does the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, specifically prohibit?

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, prohibits the giving or taking of dowry. It defines dowry as any property or valuable security given or agreed to be given in connection with a marriage, excluding voluntary gifts given to the bride.

What societal issues did the Atul Subhash suicide case bring to light?

The Atul Subhash suicide case highlighted issues such as men's rights in marital conflicts, the impact of dowry and domestic violence laws on men, and concerns about mental health support and judicial processes in handling such disputes.

What was the conviction rate for dowry offenses in India according to 2012 statistics?

According to 2012 statistics, approximately 15% of individuals arrested for dowry offenses were convicted, indicating a low conviction rate which has been a point of criticism regarding the enforcement of dowry laws.

What is the historical context of Bombay's transfer to the British Crown?

Bombay was transferred to the British Crown as part of the dowry in the marriage treaty between Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza in 1661, illustrating how dowry could have significant geopolitical implications.

What is the meaning of 'stridhan' in the context of Indian family law and historical dowry practices?

'Stridhan' translates to 'woman's property' in Sanskrit. Historically, dowry given to a bride was often considered her stridhan, intended to provide her with financial security and control over her assets, especially when women had limited inheritance rights.

How did the Supreme Court's ruling in Arnesh Kumar v. State of Bihar (2014) affect arrests in dowry cases?

The ruling mandated that police must follow specific procedures, including obtaining a magistrate's approval, before arresting individuals accused under Section 498A of the IPC. This was intended to prevent misuse of the law and ensure arrests were based on sufficient evidence, rather than automatic action.

What is the core criticism regarding the enforcement of dowry laws by police and courts in India?

A primary criticism is that police and courts often fail to adequately enforce dowry laws. This is attributed to factors such as vague statutes, the slow pace of the judicial system, and societal pressures that can influence the application of these laws.

Dowry System In India Wiki: The Weight of Tradition: Unpacking India's Dowry System

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

When you are ready...
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮

Understanding Dowry

Definition and Scope

In the context of India, the dowry system refers to the transfer of durable goods, cash, and property from the bride's family to the groom, his parents, and relatives as a prerequisite for marriage. Commonly known as "dahej" in Hindi and "jahaiz" in Urdu, this practice has deep historical roots.

Traditional Rationale

Historically, dowry was often viewed as the daughter's inheritance, providing her with financial security in her marital home, especially given traditional inheritance laws that favored sons. It also served as a means of social negotiation and upward mobility between families.

Socio-Economic Burden

Despite its traditional justifications, the dowry system places a significant financial burden on the bride's family. In its more extreme manifestations, the demand for dowry has led to severe consequences for women, ranging from emotional abuse and physical injury to fatal outcomes.

Historical Context

Ancient Practices and Debates

The historical origins of dowry in South Asia are complex and debated among scholars. While some texts suggest its presence in ancient times, others, like Michael Witzel, argue that dowry was not a significant practice during the Vedic period, with women having inheritance rights. Early accounts from travelers like Arrian and Al-Biruni suggest an absence or infrequency of dowry practices around 300 BCE and 1000 CE, respectively.

Colonial Era and Legal Framework

During the British Raj, daughters lacked legal inheritance rights, potentially reinforcing the practice of dowry as a means of securing a daughter's financial future. The transfer of Bombay to the British Crown as part of a royal marriage dowry highlights its historical significance in political and social contexts.

Evolution to Modern Practice

While bride price was historically practiced in some communities, dowry became the dominant form of transfer over time. The Hindu Succession Act of 1956 aimed to grant daughters equal inheritance rights, yet the practice of dowry persisted as a social mechanism for distributing parental property at the time of marriage.

Drivers of the Dowry System

Social Stratification and Hypergamy

Sociological analyses suggest that dowry is closely linked to social stratification and hypergamy, particularly among upper castes. The practice of marrying daughters into families of higher social status can incentivize dowry payments as a means to achieve social mobility and prestige.

Inheritance Laws and Economic Security

Weaknesses in inheritance laws prior to 1956, which often excluded daughters, contributed to dowry as a way to provide financial security. Even with legal reforms, dowry continues to function as a form of 'premortem' inheritance, transferring wealth to the bride via the groom's family.

Kinship Structures and Expectations

Patrilocal marriage systems, common in North India, where the bride moves to her husband's family, may encourage dowry due to the bride's status as a non-related member. Parental expectations and societal norms also play a significant role, with studies showing a disconnect between younger generations' attitudes and their parents' practices.

Dowry-Related Crimes

Violence Against Women

Dowry demands are a significant factor contributing to violence against women in India. This includes physical and emotional abuse, harassment, and torture aimed at extracting more property or fulfilling unmet demands.

Bride Burning and Suicide

Extreme forms of dowry-related violence include "bride burning," where brides are set ablaze, and abetment to suicide, where persistent harassment drives women to take their own lives. These are considered severe dowry crimes.

Fraudulent Practices

The system can also involve fraud, such as cases where grooms or their families accept dowry and then abandon the bride, returning to their original location, leaving the woman destitute.

Legal Measures and Enforcement

Legislative Framework

India enacted the Dowry Prohibition Act in 1961, supplemented by Sections 304B and 498A of the Indian Penal Code and Section 113B of the Evidence Act. These laws criminalize the giving, taking, or abetting of dowry, and address dowry deaths and cruelty.

Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: Prohibits the practice of giving and taking dowry.
Section 498A (IPC): Criminalizes cruelty by the husband or his relatives towards a woman for dowry.
Section 304B (IPC): Defines and penalizes "dowry death."
Section 113B (Evidence Act): Creates a presumption that the husband or his relatives caused the dowry death if the woman was subjected to cruelty for dowry before her death.
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Provides broader protections against various forms of domestic abuse.

Effectiveness and Challenges

Despite robust legislation, the enforcement of anti-dowry laws faces significant challenges. Criticisms include vague statutes, inadequate police and judicial response, societal conditioning that normalizes abuse, and lengthy legal processes, often leading to low conviction rates.

Low Conviction Rates: Difficulty in proving cases "beyond reasonable doubt" due to lack of witnesses and evidence.
Police and Judicial Response: Criticisms regarding arbitrary arrests and delays in processing cases.
Societal Acceptance: Deep-rooted cultural norms can discourage women from reporting abuse or seeking legal recourse.
Misuse of Laws: Concerns have been raised about the potential misuse of Section 498A, leading to Supreme Court directives for more thorough investigations before arrests (e.g., Arnesh Kumar guidelines).

Notable Cases and Reforms

High-profile cases like the Nisha Sharma lawsuit and the Atul Subhash suicide have brought public attention to the complexities and controversies surrounding dowry laws. These incidents have fueled debates on gender dynamics, legal reforms, and the need for better support systems for all parties involved in marital disputes.

Critiques and Societal Impact

Misuse and Counterarguments

A significant critique of anti-dowry laws, particularly Section 498A, is their alleged misuse, leading to wrongful arrests and the burden of proof on the accused. While proponents argue such measures are necessary to protect vulnerable women, critics contend they can be weaponized in marital disputes, potentially weakening women's negotiating power.

Judicial Scrutiny

The Supreme Court of India has acknowledged the potential for misuse, issuing guidelines (like in the Arnesh Kumar case) to prevent automatic arrests and ensure due process. These rulings aim to balance the protection of women with the rights of the accused.

Ongoing Debate

The dowry system remains a contentious issue, reflecting broader societal challenges related to gender inequality, economic disparities, and the effectiveness of legal interventions. Public discourse, influenced by media coverage and advocacy groups, continues to shape perspectives on this deeply entrenched practice.

Teacher's Corner

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

Edit and Print Materials from this study in the wiki2web studio

Click here to open the "Dowry System In India" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit

Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Learn about dowry_system_in_india while playing the wiki2web Clarity Challenge game.

Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!

Play now

Explore More Topics

Discover other topics to study!

myelin

informbiro period

tom garrett virginia politician

open-access mandate

kaw people

morea revolt of 1453–1454

palace of the republic berlin

vasectomy

southeast asia treaty organization

robert holmes à court

References

Witzel, Michael. "Little Dowry, No Sati: The Lot of Women in the Vedic Period." Journal of South Asia Women Studies 2, no. 4 (1996).

John Watson McCrindle (Translator), The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as described by Arrian, Archibald Constable & Co. (Westminster, UK): 280 ãã¼ã¸åºç

Edward Sachau (Translator), BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«, Muá¸¥ammad ibn Aá¸¥mad, Alberuni's India (Vol. 2), Kegan Paul, Trench, TrÃ¼bner & Co. (London, 1910.) Chapter LXIX: 154 ãã¼ã¸åºç; see Al-Hind too.

Lucy Carroll (1991), Daughter's Right of Inheritance in India: A Perspective on the Problem of Dowry, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 25, No. 4, pages 791-809

"Runaway husbands: Abandonment a disturbing trend". The Province, 20 April 2005.

Jane Rudd, "Dowry-murder: An example of violence against women." Women's studies international forum 24#5 (2001).

Meghana Shah, "Rights under fire: The inadequacy of international human rights instruments in combating dowry murder in India." Connecticut Journal of International Law 19 (2003): 209+.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Dowry system in India Wikipedia page

Feedback & Support

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not legal or social advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional legal consultation or expert analysis of social issues. Always consult with qualified professionals and refer to official legal documentation for specific guidance. Never disregard professional advice because of something you have read on this website.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

The Weight of Tradition

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Understanding Dowry ⚖️

🎁 Definition and Scope

💰 Traditional Rationale

😥 Socio-Economic Burden

Historical Context ⏳

📜 Ancient Practices and Debates

🇬🇧 Colonial Era and Legal Framework

➡️ Evolution to Modern Practice

Drivers of the Dowry System 📈

🤝 Social Stratification and Hypergamy

⚖️ Inheritance Laws and Economic Security

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Kinship Structures and Expectations

Dowry-Related Crimes 🚨

💔 Violence Against Women

🔥 Bride Burning and Suicide

💸 Fraudulent Practices

Legal Measures and Enforcement ⚖️

📜 Legislative Framework

❓ Effectiveness and Challenges

⚖️ Notable Cases and Reforms

Critiques and Societal Impact 💬

🔄 Misuse and Counterarguments

⚖️ Judicial Scrutiny

🌐 Ongoing Debate

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Understanding Dowry

Definition and Scope

Traditional Rationale

Socio-Economic Burden

Historical Context

Ancient Practices and Debates

Colonial Era and Legal Framework

Evolution to Modern Practice

Drivers of the Dowry System

Social Stratification and Hypergamy

Inheritance Laws and Economic Security

Kinship Structures and Expectations

Dowry-Related Crimes

Violence Against Women

Bride Burning and Suicide

Fraudulent Practices

Legal Measures and Enforcement

Legislative Framework

Effectiveness and Challenges

Notable Cases and Reforms

Critiques and Societal Impact

Misuse and Counterarguments

Judicial Scrutiny

Ongoing Debate

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice