What were Fangshi in ancient China, and during what period did they flourish?

Fangshi were Chinese technical specialists who were prominent from the third century BCE to the fifth century CE. They were practitioners of various arts and sciences, often associated with esoteric knowledge and techniques.

What are some of the diverse English translations or roles attributed to Fangshi?

Fangshi have been translated into English in many ways, reflecting their broad range of skills. These include alchemist, astrologer, diviner, exorcist, geomancer, doctor, magician, monk, mystic, necromancer, occultist, omenologist, physician, physiognomist, technician, technologist, thaumaturge, and wizard.

What are the literal meanings of the Chinese characters fang and shi that form the term Fangshi?

The Chinese word fangshi combines 'fang' (方), meaning 'direction, method, formula, prescription, or way,' and 'shi' (士), meaning 'scholar, gentleman, or trained specialist.' Together, they literally suggest a 'method master' or 'specialist in a particular way.'

What is one interpretation of the term Fangshi that connects it to religious Taoism?

According to Chinese historian Yu Ying-shi, Fangshi can generally be translated as 'religious Taoists' or 'popular Taoists' because many of their arts were later incorporated into the Taoist religion. Specific translations like 'magicians' or 'alchemists' are considered context-dependent.

What is the primary characteristic of Fangshi according to Harper's analysis of their etymology?

Harper suggests that a chief characteristic of all individuals known as Fangshi was the possession of writings containing occult knowledge, which they might reveal to select patrons. This implies a connection to specialized texts and secret traditions.

What three distinct areas did DeWoskin suggest as antecedents for Fangshi thought and techniques?

DeWoskin proposed that the antecedents of Fangshi thought and techniques could be grouped into three areas: astrology and calendrics; the practices of wu mediums and conjury; and pharmaceutical and hygienic medicine. He noted that prominent Fangshi typically specialized in only one of these areas.

What are Nathan Sivin's four general criteria for identifying Fangshi based on Han through Song dynasty usage?

Sivin's criteria include: 1) Fangshi usually belonged to a privileged, literate segment of society, often from families with official rank. 2) They typically did not hold high regular civil service rank, or if they did, it was often an imperial gesture. 3) They did not pursue the personal goals expected of the well-born and might carry a faint stigma for their technical enthusiasms. 4) They possessed powers rarely seen in orthodox literati, such as foresight or the ability to manipulate natural processes, but descriptions of them never conveyed full humanity or mastery of the social Way.

In which early Chinese historical texts are Fangshi first documented?

Fangshi are first recorded in the early Chinese canonical Twenty-Four Histories, specifically in Sima Qian's 'Records of the Grand Historian' (c. 91 BCE), Ban Gu's 'Book of Han' (82 CE), Chen Shou's 'Records of Three Kingdoms' (289 CE), and Fan Ye's 'Book of Later Han' (445 CE).

According to historical texts, where did Fangshi originate, and what was their early specialization?

Historical texts document that during the late Warring States period (475–221 BCE), Fangshi originated in northern China and specialized in techniques related to xian, which means immortality or transcendence.

What was the primary interest of emperors during the Qin and Han dynasties regarding Fangshi?

During the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE) and Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), emperors patronized Fangshi primarily because they sought the elixir of immortality from them.

How did the role of Fangshi evolve by the Six Dynasties Period?

By the middle of the Six Dynasties Period (220–569 CE), the role of Fangshi had declined, and their techniques were gradually adapted into the developing Taoist religion and traditional Chinese medicine.

In which section of Sima Qian's 'Records of the Grand Historian' does the term Fangshi first appear, and in what context?

The term Fangshi first appears in the 'Fengshan shu' (Treatise on the Feng and Shan Sacrifices) of the 'Records of the Grand Historian.' The context concerns Qin Shi Huang's travels and sacrifices in the northeastern coastal states of Qi and Yan, where Fangshi claimed to transmit the teachings of Zou Yan.

What were the legendary spirit mountains associated with the search for the elixir of immortality by early Fangshi?

Early Fangshi asserted knowledge of three divine mountains in the Bohai Sea where the elixir of immortality existed: Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou. These mountains were said to be inhabited by immortal spirits, but reaching them was difficult due to winds.

Which Fangshi were dispatched by Qin Shi Huang on expeditions to find the elixir of life?

Qin Shi Huang dispatched the Fangshi Xu Fu in 219 BCE and Lu Sheng (Master Lu) in 215 BCE to obtain the elixir of life from the immortal Anqi Sheng, who supposedly lived on Mount Penglai. Several other Fangshi expeditions were sent to the spirit islands but never returned.

How did Emperor Wu of Han patronize Fangshi, and what kind of techniques did they compile?

Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) lavishly patronized Fangshi, encouraging many with 'secret traditions' to come to court. His uncle, Liu An, gathered thousands of Fangshi and compiled their techniques related to spirit transcendence (shenxian) and alchemy (huangbai).

How did the historical categorization of Fangshi change from the 'Records of the Grand Historian' to the 'Book of Later Han' and 'Records of Three Kingdoms'?

In the 'Records of the Grand Historian,' Fangshi methods primarily concerned demons, spirits, and retreating from old age. The 'Book of Later Han' broadened the category to include omen and portent techniques like 'wind angles' divination. The 'Records of Three Kingdoms' combined Fangshi and 'shushu' (numbers and arts) into a chapter on 'fangshu' (methods and arts), indicating a shift towards including experts in detecting natural world shifts.

What is a notable contradiction in the source regarding the geographical origin of Fangshi?

The provided text presents a contradiction regarding the origin of Fangshi. One section states they originated in northern China during the late Warring States period, while another section later mentions that Fangshi originated in southern China.

What are some of the techniques employed by Fangshi, as mentioned in the text?

Fangshi employed numerous techniques, including familiar ones like dunjia (sexagenary cycle divination) and wuyi (shamanic medicine). Other techniques mentioned are fengjiao (wind angles divination), tuibu (astrology), tingzhuan (cleromancy), and shefu (a challenge game akin to parlor magic).

How did DeWoskin explain the divination practice known as Fengjiao (Wind Angles)?

DeWoskin described Fengjiao as observing the wind from eight angles for its direction and strength. He suggested it might be linked to expertise in the five tones, specifically the ability to hear pitches inaudible to most people.

What is Csikszentmihalyi's interpretation of Fengjiao divination?

Csikszentmihalyi clarified that Fengjiao involves using seasonal winds' temperature, strength, and directional changes to determine the local increase and decrease of Yin and Yang qi. This practice may date back to the Shang dynasty.

What criticism did Harper levy against DeWoskin's translations of Fangshi techniques like tuibu and tingzhuan?

Harper criticized DeWoskin's translations as inaccurate and uninformative. For example, Harper argued that 'tuibu' literally means 'plotting the paces' and refers to determining celestial paths, not 'astral influences,' and that 'tingzhuan' refers to a form of divination with lots using broken bamboo, not 'bamboo twisters.'

What is the practice of shefu, and how does it relate to Fangshi?

Shefu, meaning 'shoot cover,' was a practice employed by some Fangshi that resembled parlor magic. It involved games where Fangshi would guess the identity of hidden objects before an audience, demonstrating their skills.

Name at least five notable Fangshi mentioned in the text and their associated roles or achievements.

Notable Fangshi include Xu Fu (sent to find the elixir of immortality), Luan Da (professed knowledge of immortality and gold transmutation), Gan Ji (Daoist priest), Zuo Ci (Daoist master), Ge Xuan (Daoist master and grandfather of Ge Hong), Guan Lu (famous diviner), Guo Pu (commentator and author), and Ge Hong (Daoist author of the Baopuzi).

How did the Fangshi tradition contribute to the development of Daoist religions and other practices?

The Fangshi tradition's techniques were gradually absorbed by Daoist religions (like the Shangqing School), Daoist movements (like the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice), Chinese alchemy (both internal and external), Buddhist meditation, and traditional Chinese medicine. They are seen as forerunners to organized Daoist practices.

What did Joseph Needham propose about the origins of Daoism in relation to Fangshi?

Joseph Needham traced the origins of Daoism to an alliance between Fangshi, wu (shamans/doctors), and philosophers like Laozi and Zhuangzi. He highlighted the artisanal element shared by these groups, contrasting them with the Confucian scholar-administrator.

According to Joseph Needham, what were the two key components of alchemy as practiced by Fangshi?

Joseph Needham defined alchemy, as practiced by Fangshi, as the combination of macrobiotics (the belief in prolonging life through drugs or elixirs) and aurifaction (the belief in the possibility of making gold from other substances).

How did the term 'daoshi' relate to 'fangshi' in historical context?

Csikszentmihalyi notes that the term 'daoshi' (masters of the Dao) began to replace 'fangshi' (masters of methods) in texts like the 'Hanshu.' This indicates a gradual shift where the broader concept of Daoism encompassed the specialized practices previously associated with Fangshi.

What criticism did Gu Yong, a minister to Emperor Cheng of Han, level against Fangshi practices?

Gu Yong harshly criticized Fangshi practices, calling them cheating and deluding. He condemned occultists who ignored the principles of benevolence and the Five Classics, instead focusing on strange claims about spirits, immortality drugs, distant quests, and transforming base metals into gold.

What connections does the article suggest between Fangshi and the concept of immortality?

Fangshi were deeply connected to the pursuit of immortality. During the Qin and Han dynasties, emperors patronized them specifically to find the elixir of immortality. Early Fangshi also claimed knowledge of legendary spirit mountains where immortals resided and the elixir could be found.

How did Fangshi contribute to the development of Chinese medicine?

Fangshi's medical practices combined elements of the Confucian medical tradition and popular practices derived from shamanic ritual. They employed a range of therapies, including acupuncture, pharmacology, incantation, and talismanic exorcism, which were later integrated into traditional Chinese medicine.

What is the significance of the Yinqueshan Han Slips in relation to Fangshi techniques?

The Yinqueshan Han Slips, discovered in 1972, contain manuscripts about Fangshi techniques such as fengjiao (wind angles divination) and nayin (matching sounds), providing direct evidence of their practices from the Han dynasty.

What role did Fangshi play in the development of Chinese alchemy?

Fangshi are considered pioneers in Chinese alchemy. Their followers, particularly those interested in physical experimentation with the Five Elements, developed early alchemical substances like cinnabar (mercuric sulphide) in pursuit of the elixir of life and gold.

What is the meaning of the term 'fangshi' in contemporary usage, as exemplified by Timothy C. Wong?

In contemporary usage, the term 'fangshi' can still be applied to explain authors and their works that engage with traditions or themes associated with these ancient specialists. Timothy C. Wong, for instance, used the Fangshi tradition to interpret the novel 'The Travels of Lao Can.'

What ancient Chinese traditions did Fangshi consolidate, according to DeWoskin?

DeWoskin stated that Fangshi consolidated several ancient Chinese traditions. Their divination practices traced back to Shang-dynasty oracle-bone culture and Chou-dynasty milfoil-stalk procedures. Their medical practices combined Confucian and shamanic elements, and their immortality practices included alchemical and hygienic techniques.

What were the 'Three Treasures' associated with Fangshi practices?

The 'Three Treasures' in the context of Fangshi practices refer to Jing (essence), Qi (breath), and Shen (spirit). These are fundamental concepts often discussed in relation to traditional Chinese medicine and Daoist cultivation.

What is the significance of the term 'xian' in relation to early Fangshi?

Early Fangshi, originating in northern China during the late Warring States period, specialized in techniques related to 'xian' (仙), which signifies immortality or transcendence. This pursuit of longevity and spiritual attainment was a core aspect of their practice.

How did the concept of the Dao influence the perception of Fangshi practices?

The concept of the Dao served as an explanatory framework for the efficacy of the many new disciplines developed by Fangshi. As Daoism evolved, it integrated many of these Fangshi techniques, leading to the term 'daoshi' gradually replacing 'fangshi.'

Fangshi Wiki: Masters of Method: Unveiling the Ancient Chinese Fangshi

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Etymology

Meaning and Translation

The term Fangshi (方士) signifies "method masters" or "specialists in techniques." It combines fang (方), meaning "direction, method, recipe," and shi (士), meaning "scholar, gentleman, trained specialist." English translations vary widely, reflecting the multifaceted nature of their roles, including terms such as alchemist, astrologer, diviner, magician, physician, mystic, and technician.

Scholarly Interpretations

Scholars debate the precise meaning of fang. Some suggest it refers to "magical recipes" or "esoteric methods." Others propose it relates to "direction" or "orientation," linking to divination practices. The term's elusiveness defies a single, consistent translation, often requiring contextual interpretation. Historian Yu Ying-shi suggests "religious Taoists" or "popular Taoists" as a general translation, as their arts were later integrated into the Taoist religion.

Core Characteristics

Regardless of the precise etymology, Fangshi were characterized by their possession of specialized knowledge and techniques. They typically belonged to a literate elite, often associated with official families but not usually holding high rank in the civil service. Their focus on esoteric arts distinguished them from orthodox scholars, and they were known for extraordinary abilities, such as foresight and influencing natural processes.

Historical Trajectory

Origins and Early Development

Fangshi first emerged in northern China during the late Warring States period (475–221 BCE), specializing in techniques for achieving immortality (xian). During the Qin (221–206 BCE) and Han (206 BCE – 220 CE) dynasties, they gained imperial patronage, particularly from rulers seeking the elixir of immortality. Early Fangshi claimed knowledge of divine mountains like Penglai, where immortals resided and the elixir could be found.

Imperial Patronage

Emperors like Qin Shi Huang and Emperor Wu of Han actively supported Fangshi, commissioning expeditions and encouraging the development of their arts. Figures like Xu Fu were sent on quests for the elixir of life. Emperor Wu's court was filled with Fangshi who practiced alchemy, sought longevity, and attempted to emulate legendary figures like the Yellow Emperor through various rituals and techniques.

Decline and Integration

By the Six Dynasties Period (220–569 CE), the distinct role of the Fangshi began to decline. Their diverse techniques and knowledge were gradually absorbed into developing religious traditions, most notably Daoism, as well as traditional Chinese medicine and various schools of Chinese alchemy. The term Daoshi ("master of the Dao") started to supplant Fangshi in common usage.

Esoteric Practices

Divination and Astrology

Fangshi employed a wide array of techniques. These included complex divination methods like fengjiao ("wind angles"), which involved observing wind direction and strength to interpret omens and shifts in qi. Other practices included tuibu ("plotting the paces"), related to determining celestial paths, and tingzhuan, a form of divination using broken bamboo slivers.

Alchemy and Longevity

A significant focus was on achieving longevity and immortality. This involved both internal alchemy (neidan), focusing on cultivating internal energies, and external alchemy (waidan), which sought to create elixirs from substances like cinnabar. Practices related to hygiene, diet, and breathing exercises (yangsheng) were also integral to their pursuit of extended life and transcendence.

Ritual and Performance

Beyond theoretical knowledge, Fangshi engaged in practical demonstrations. These could range from shamanic healing (wuyi) and talismanic exorcism to more performative acts akin to parlor magic, such as guessing hidden objects (shefu). Their skills often aimed to impress patrons and demonstrate mastery over natural and supernatural forces.

Key Figures

Early Masters

Several prominent Fangshi are recorded in historical texts:

Xu Fu (fl. 219–210 BCE): Sent by Qin Shi Huang on expeditions to find the elixir of immortality.
Luan Da (d. 112 BCE): Claimed knowledge of immortality secrets and control over the Yellow River.
Gan Ji (c. 2nd century CE): A Daoist priest associated with early religious movements.

Later Scholars and Alchemists

As the tradition evolved, figures like:

Zuo Ci (c. 3rd century CE): A Daoist master, teacher of Ge Xuan.
Ge Xuan (164–244 CE): Daoist master and grandfather of Ge Hong.
Ge Hong (283–343 CE): Author of the influential Baopuzi, a key text on Daoism and alchemy.
Guo Pu (276–324 CE): A noted commentator and scholar.

Figures of Legend

Some individuals became legendary figures, eventually counted among the Eight Immortals:

Elder Zhang Guo (c. mid 8th century): Revered for his wisdom and longevity.
Chen Tuan (c. 920–989 CE): Daoist master credited with originating Liuhebafa martial arts.

Influence and Legacy

Daoism and Religion

The Fangshi tradition is deeply intertwined with the development of Daoism. Many Fangshi techniques, including alchemy, meditation, and concepts of immortality, were foundational to early Daoist schools like Shangqing and Lingbao. The term Daoshi ("master of the Dao") gradually replaced Fangshi as religious Daoism formalized.

Alchemy and Medicine

Fangshi were pioneers in Chinese alchemy, both internal (neidan) and external (waidan). Their pursuit of elixirs for longevity and transmutation of metals laid groundwork for later alchemical practices. Furthermore, their knowledge of pharmacology, acupuncture, and various healing arts contributed significantly to the foundation of traditional Chinese medicine.

Broader Impact

The Fangshi's expertise extended to astrology, calendrics, and divination, influencing early Chinese scientific thought. Their emphasis on practical methods and esoteric knowledge, distinct from orthodox Confucian scholarship, highlights a vibrant intellectual current in ancient China that contributed to diverse fields, from philosophy to technology.

Critiques and Skepticism

Orthodox Opposition

The practices of the Fangshi were not universally accepted. Officials like Gu Yong, a minister to Emperor Cheng of Han, criticized them for abandoning orthodox principles and engaging in deceptive practices. He denounced those who claimed to find immortals, concocted longevity drugs, and pursued transmutation of metals as charlatans who deluded the masses.

Scholarly Disagreements

Even within academic circles, interpretations of Fangshi texts and practices have varied. Scholars like Donald Harper have critiqued translations and explanations of Fangshi techniques, pointing out potential inaccuracies and the difficulty in definitively understanding their methods. The term itself remains subject to diverse interpretations, reflecting the complexity of their roles.

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References

Needham, Joseph. 1956. Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 2, History of Scientific Thought. Cambridge University Press. p. 134.

Harper, Donald (1986). "Review of Doctors, Diviners, and Magicians of Ancient China: Biographies of Fang-Shih by Kenneth J. DeWoskin." Journal of the American Oriental Society 106.2 (1986), p. 394.

Roth, Harold D. 1991. "Psychology and Self-Cultivation in Early Taoistic Thought", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 51.2:599â650. p. 604.

YÃ¼, Ying-shih (1965), "Life and Immortality in The Mind of Han China," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 25: 80â122. p. 105.

Toh, Hoong Teik. 2010. "Notes on the Earliest Sanskrit Word Known in Chinese", Sino-Platonic Papers 201. p. 4.

Harper, Donald (1986). "Review of Doctors, Diviners, and Magicians of Ancient China: Biographies of Fang-Shih by Kenneth J. DeWoskin." Journal of the American Oriental Society 106.2 (1986), p. 395.

Tr. Watson, Burton, tr. 1996. Records of the Grand Historian. Columbia University Press. p. 14.

Lagerwey & LÃ¼ 2009, p. 39.

Lagerwey & LÃ¼ 2009, p. 40.

Lagerwey & LÃ¼ 2009, p. 41.

Lagerwey & LÃ¼ 2009, pp. 1280.

Lagerwey & LÃ¼ 2009, pp.1283.

Harper, Donald (1986). "Review of Doctors, Diviners, and Magicians of Ancient China: Biographies of Fang-Shih by Kenneth J. DeWoskin." Journal of the American Oriental Society 106.2 (1986), p. 396.

Wong, Timothy C. 1992. "Liu E in the Fang-shih tradition," Journal of the American Oriental Society 112.2:302â306.

Robinet Isabelle and Phyllis Brooks, tr. 1997. Taoism: Growth of a Religion. Stanford University Press. p. 37.

Liu Kwang-ching, âSocioethics as Orthodoxy,â in Liu Kwang-ching, ed., Orthodoxy In Late Imperial China, Berkeley, 1990, 53â100:59. Quoting DeWoskin 1983, p. 38.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Fangshi Wikipedia page

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This is not professional advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for scholarly research, historical analysis, or consultation with experts in ancient Chinese history, philosophy, or religion. Always refer to primary sources and academic literature for in-depth study.

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Masters of Method

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Etymology 🧐

📚 Meaning and Translation

🔍 Scholarly Interpretations

📜 Core Characteristics

Historical Trajectory ⏳

📜 Origins and Early Development

👑 Imperial Patronage

📉 Decline and Integration

Esoteric Practices ✨

🔮 Divination and Astrology

⚗️ Alchemy and Longevity

🎭 Ritual and Performance

Key Figures 👤

⭐ Early Masters

⭐ Later Scholars and Alchemists

⭐ Figures of Legend

Influence and Legacy 🔗

🌿 Daoism and Religion

⚗️ Alchemy and Medicine

💡 Broader Impact

Critiques and Skepticism 🤔

⚖️ Orthodox Opposition

❓ Scholarly Disagreements

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Etymology

Meaning and Translation

Scholarly Interpretations

Core Characteristics

Historical Trajectory

Origins and Early Development

Imperial Patronage

Decline and Integration

Esoteric Practices

Divination and Astrology

Alchemy and Longevity

Ritual and Performance

Key Figures

Early Masters

Later Scholars and Alchemists

Figures of Legend

Influence and Legacy

Daoism and Religion

Alchemy and Medicine

Broader Impact

Critiques and Skepticism

Orthodox Opposition

Scholarly Disagreements

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice