The Interventionist Crucible
An academic analysis of the pro-war movement that marked a pivotal turn from revolutionary socialism to national syndicalism, setting the stage for Italian Fascism.
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Genesis of a Movement
A Call to War
The Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria (Leagues of Revolutionary Action) was an Italian political movement founded on December 11, 1914. Its primary objective was to agitate for Italy's entry into World War I, which had begun in July of that year. At the time, Italy remained officially neutral, a stance supported by the political majority and much of the public.
The Triumvirate
The movement was spearheaded by three key figures: Benito Mussolini, who had recently been expelled from the Italian Socialist Party for his pro-war stance; Alceste De Ambris, a revolutionary syndicalist; and Angelo Oliviero Olivetti. They created the Fasci as an umbrella organization to unite the disparate pro-war factions known as "interventionists."
A Break from the Left
The movement's formation represented a significant schism within the Italian left. Its founders and members were drawn from interventionist factions that split from established socialist and syndicalist organizations, such as the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and the Unione Sindacale Italiana (USI), over the fundamental question of participation in the war.
Core Ideology
Irredentism and Nationalism
A central tenet of the movement was Italian irredentismโthe ambition to expand Italy's borders to incorporate territories with ethnic Italian populations. Mussolini explicitly called for war to "liberate" regions like Trentino and Istria from Austro-Hungarian rule. This nationalist fervor extended to strategic claims over areas like Trieste and parts of Dalmatia.
National Syndicalism
The Fasci blended nationalist ambitions with revolutionary syndicalism. This ideology sought to unite workers and the nation through a system of trade unions (syndicates) that would control the means of production, but within a nationalistic, rather than internationalist, framework. The war was seen as a vehicle for national and social revolution.
Revolutionary Interventionism
The movement was fundamentally left-wing in its political position at the time. It viewed the war not merely as a conflict between nations but as a revolutionary opportunity. Proponents believed that intervention would accelerate historical processes, destroy old aristocratic empires like Austria-Hungary, and forge a new, vitalized Italy based on the "ideals of justice and liberty."
Key Timeline
1914: Formation
Inspired by the manifesto of the Fascio Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista from October, the Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria is officially founded on December 11, 1914. Benito Mussolini, recently expelled from the Socialist Party, becomes its leading figure, using his new newspaper, Il Popolo d'Italia, as its platform.
1915: Agitation and Action
The movement holds its first congress on January 24, 1915, formally declaring its goal to resolve national border issues. Throughout the spring, it organizes pro-war demonstrations. On April 11, a rally is confronted by neutralist Socialists, leading to police intervention and the death of an electrician, Innocente Marcora. Following this, Mussolini first refers to his supporters as "fascists."
1915: War and Dissolution
In May 1915, the Italian government, having secretly signed the Treaty of London, declares war on Austria-Hungary. The Fasci achieves its primary goal. The movement effectively dissolves as most of its members, including Mussolini (who was conscripted in September), volunteer or are called to serve in the army, leaving for the front lines.
Funding and Support
Domestic Industrial Backing
To support his pro-interventionist campaign, Mussolini and his movement received significant financial support from major Italian companies. Key backers included Ansaldo, a prominent armaments firm that stood to profit from the war, and other powerful interests in the sugar and electrical industries.
Foreign Government Sources
The movement's goals aligned with those of the Entente powers. Consequently, Mussolini received financial backing from government-backed sources in France, which was eager to see Italy open another front against the Central Powers. Despite this funding, Mussolini's socialist critics noted he maintained editorial freedom in his newspaper.
Alleged British Intelligence Payments
Later claims suggest that, by 1917, Mussolini was also supported by the British Directorate of Military Intelligence. He was allegedly paid a weekly wage of ยฃ100 (a substantial sum at the time) to ensure his pro-war propaganda continued, a payment said to have been authorized by Sir Samuel Hoare.
Legacy and Succession
A Precursor to Fascism
The Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria was a short-lived but historically crucial movement. It served as a political laboratory where Mussolini forged a new ideology, blending left-wing revolutionary zeal with fervent nationalism. It marked his definitive break from socialist internationalism and laid the ideological groundwork for what would become Fascism.
The Sansepolcrismo Reunion
After World War I concluded, the veterans of the interventionist movement, including many former members of the Fasci, reunited. In 1919, they gathered in Milan's Piazza San Sepolcro to found the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento. This new organization directly succeeded the Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria and would, in 1921, transform into the National Fascist Party.
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References
References
- O'Brien, Paul (2005). Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, The Soldier, The Fascist. Berg Publishers. ISBN 1845200519.
- Zeev Sternhell (1994). The Birth of Fascist Ideology. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691044864. p. 303.
- Denis Mack Smith (1983). Mussolini: A Biography. New York: Random House. ISBN 0394716582.
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