What is the definition of a gay village?

A gay village, also referred to as a gayborhood or gaybourhood, is a geographical area within a city that is recognized for being inhabited or frequently visited by a significant number of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) individuals. These areas often feature a concentration of establishments catering to the LGBTQ community, such as bars, nightclubs, restaurants, boutiques, and bookstores.

What types of establishments are commonly found in gay villages?

Gay villages typically contain a variety of businesses and venues that cater to the LGBTQ community. These commonly include gay bars and pubs, nightclubs, bathhouses, restaurants, boutiques, and bookstores, serving as hubs for social and cultural life.

What are the dual perspectives on the function of gay villages within a city?

Gay villages can be viewed from two primary perspectives: firstly, as an LGBTQ-friendly oasis within a potentially hostile urban environment, providing a safe haven. Secondly, they can be seen as areas with a high concentration of LGBTQ residents and businesses, reflecting the community's presence and influence.

How has the location and socio-economic status of gay villages evolved over time?

Historically, gay villages often emerged in working-class or economically depressed areas due to sociopolitical ostracization and the need for mutual safety. However, today, they are frequently found in more affluent parts of cities, chosen for their aesthetic or historical value, and are no longer solely driven by the need for protection from homophobic threats.

What is the relationship between gay villages and the process of gentrification?

Gay communities have often played a pioneering role in the gentrification of previously run-down urban areas. By revitalizing neighborhoods, they can increase property values, which sometimes leads to the displacement of long-term residents, including members of the LGBTQ community itself, as areas become more expensive.

How do modern 'queer ghettos' differ from those of the 1970s?

The text suggests that contemporary manifestations of 'queer ghettos' bear little resemblance to those that existed in the 1970s, implying a significant shift in their characteristics, social dynamics, or perhaps the nature of LGBTQ community organization.

What historical context does the term 'ghetto' have in relation to marginalized communities?

The term 'ghetto' originally referred to areas in European cities where Jewish populations were mandated to live by law. Over time, during the 20th century, its usage expanded to describe neighborhoods inhabited by various groups considered outside the societal norm, including LGBTQ people, ethnic minorities, and other marginalized populations.

From what dual perspectives can gay villages be viewed in terms of marginalization and refuge?

Gay villages can be seen as spaces of marginality created by a homophobic, biphobic, and transphobic heterosexual community. Conversely, they are also viewed as vital places of refuge where LGBTQ individuals can find safety and access nondiscriminatory resources and services, similar to how other minority groups utilize concentrated community spaces.

Can you provide examples of cities with distinct gay villages?

Yes, several cities have notable gay villages. Examples include Philadelphia's Gayborhood, San Francisco's Castro neighborhood, Seattle's Capitol Hill, and Montreal's 'Le Village' (officially Centre-Sud). Other cities like Austin, Texas, have significant LGBTQ populations but lack a single, clearly defined gay village.

Which neighborhood in Berlin is considered the first gay village in the world?

The neighborhood of Schöneberg in Berlin is recognized as the world's first gay village, having developed its distinct character in the 1920s.

What was the situation for gay social networks in the United States before the 1960s and 1970s?

Prior to the 1960s and 1970s, specialized LGBTQ communities like gay villages were not common in the United States. Instead, gay social networks primarily developed around bars, which were often located in specific urban areas where police implicitly permitted 'deviant entertainment' under close surveillance, and openly gay bars typically lacked licenses to serve alcohol.

What significant event in 1969 contributed to the rise of gay ghettos in North America?

The police raid of the Stonewall Inn, a private gay club, on June 27, 1969, led to several days of disturbances involving over a thousand people. This event, known as the Stonewall Rebellion, significantly altered the profile and dynamics of the gay community, precipitating the emergence of gay ghettos across North America as spatial organization shifted from bars to specific neighborhoods.

When was the Stonewall National Monument established, and what is its significance?

The Stonewall National Monument was designated on June 24, 2016, making it the first U.S. National Monument specifically dedicated to the LGBT-rights movement. It commemorates the historic Stonewall Rebellion.

How do gay villages vary across different cities and countries?

Gay villages exhibit considerable variation from one city to another and from one country to another. This diversity reflects differing cultural contexts, historical development, and the specific ways LGBTQ communities have established themselves geographically.

What are 'satellite' gay villages, and how do they form?

'Satellite' gay villages are secondary LGBTQ-concentrated areas that often emerge as 'overflow' from established main gay villages. They typically form when LGBTQ individuals are priced out of the primary village due to rising rents caused by gentrification, leading them to seek more affordable areas where new LGBTQ communities and businesses subsequently develop.

Can you provide examples of cities where gentrification has led to the development of satellite gay villages?

Yes, examples include New York City, where many gays moved from Greenwich Village to Chelsea in the 1990s, leading to increased property values in Chelsea. Similarly, Philadelphia's Gayborhood is undergoing gentrification, causing the city's LGBT community to expand. In Boston, gay men moved to the South End and lesbians to Jamaica Plain, and in Chicago, gays moved to Andersonville as an offshoot of Boystown/Lakeview.

Are there instances where gay villages are entire municipalities rather than neighborhoods?

Yes, some gay villages function as separate municipalities that serve as primary gay enclaves for larger metropolitan areas. Notable examples include West Hollywood in the Los Angeles area and Wilton Manors in the Miami/Fort Lauderdale area.

How have gay men influenced urban revitalization, according to urban studies theorists?

Urban studies theorists like Richard Florida suggest that the presence of gay men can drive urban revitalization. Their communities are seen as catalysts that attract investors and jobs, particularly in high-technology sectors, contributing to a stronger 'creative economy' and stimulating urban growth.

What is the economic argument for cities being tolerant of LGBTQ+ communities?

Cities that are more tolerant towards LGBTQ+ people tend to possess stronger and more robust creative economies. This tolerance attracts a significant 'creative class,' which is integral to generating new ideas that stimulate economic growth, making LGBTQ+ acceptance an indicator of urban sophistication and economic vitality.

How have pride parades and similar events impacted the visibility and economy of gay villages?

Events like pride parades, such as Sydney's Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras and Manchester's Pride, have significantly increased the visibility of gay communities. These events attract substantial investment and generate tourist revenue, signaling that the acceptance of LGBTQ+ culture is linked to urban sophistication and economic benefit.

Which US town had the highest percentage of gay couples according to the 2010 census?

According to data from the 2010 United States census, Provincetown, Massachusetts, recorded the highest number of gay couples relative to its population among all cities in the United States.

What is 'Boystown' in Chicago known for?

Boystown, located within Chicago's Lakeview neighborhood, is a well-defined gay village that emerged in the 1980s. It began with a cluster of bars on North Halsted Street and developed into a district dedicated to LGBT life and culture. Its growth was fueled by politically engaged residents who resisted city efforts to marginalize them, and its bars also served as hubs for AIDS-related activism.

What is 'Andersonville' in Chicago known for in relation to the LGBTQ community?

Andersonville, another gay village in Chicago, became known as 'Girlstown' in the 1980s and 1990s due to an influx of lesbian couples, partly influenced by the relocation of a feminist bookstore. While it retains historical significance for the lesbian community, in recent years, more gay men have moved there, and the neighborhood's business landscape has shifted.

Which neighborhood in San Francisco is considered a primary gay village?

The Castro District in San Francisco is widely recognized as a primary gay village and a significant center for LGBTQ+ culture and history in the city.

What is the significance of Oxford Street in Sydney's gay village?

Oxford Street in Sydney, particularly in neighborhoods like Darlinghurst and Surry Hills, is known as the 'Golden Mile' due to its extensive stretch of LGBT bars and clubs, making it a central hub for the city's gay community.

Which European neighborhoods are recognized as gay villages?

Notable gay villages in Europe include Le Marais in Paris, France, which has seen a growing gay presence since the 1980s with numerous gay cafes, nightclubs, and shops. Sitges, near Barcelona, Spain, is also a well-known gay resort town. Additionally, areas like Warmoesstraat in Amsterdam and neighborhoods around Nollendorfplatz and Motzstrasse in Berlin are associated with LGBTQ+ culture.

What is Shinjuku Ni-chōme in Tokyo known for?

Shinjuku Ni-chōme in Tokyo is recognized as Japan's primary gay village and boasts the world's highest density of gay and lesbian bars. These bars are often small and cater to specific subcultures within the LGBTQ+ community, including foreign tourists, regulars, butch lesbians, and the BDSM community. It is also home to Japan's first LGBT center, Pride House Tokyo Legacy.

Which neighborhood in Bogota, Colombia, is considered a prominent gay village?

The Chapinero neighborhood in Bogota, Colombia, is known as a prominent gay village, largely centered around Theatron, one of the world's most famous gay nightclubs. Historically, Chapinero was known for its vibrant drag ball scene.

What does the 'Mosaic Brazil Sexuality Project' survey indicate about LGBTQ+ populations in Brazilian cities?

A 2009 survey by the University of São Paulo estimated that approximately 10.4% of Brazil's male population identified as gay or bisexual, and 6.3% of the female population identified as lesbian or bisexual. Rio de Janeiro showed a particularly high percentage of gay or bisexual men (19.3%), while Manaus had a notable percentage of lesbian or bisexual women (10.2%).

Which US city has the highest percentage of LGBTQ+ residents according to the provided data?

Based on the provided data, San Francisco has the highest percentage of LGBTQ+ residents, with 15.4% of its population identifying as LGBTQ+.

What is the estimated percentage of LGBTQ+ residents in Palm Springs, California?

An estimated 33% to 50% of Palm Springs, California's population is believed to be gay male or part of the broader LGBTQ+ community, making it the community with the largest percentage in the United States.

How does the US Census Bureau collect data on LGBTQ+ populations?

The US Census Bureau does not directly ask questions about sexual orientation or gender identity. The statistics provided are estimates typically derived from sources like the American Community Survey (ACS).

Which US states have the highest percentage of LGBTQ+ residents?

According to the provided data from 2015-2016, New Hampshire leads with 6.6% LGBTQ+ residents, followed by Washington and Massachusetts, both at 5.7%. California and Colorado also show high percentages, with 5.2% and 5.1% respectively.

What role did gay men play in the urban renaissance of San Francisco in the 1970s?

The presence of gay men within San Francisco's real estate industry was a significant factor that facilitated the city's urban renaissance during the 1970s. They were instrumental in revitalizing neighborhoods and contributing to the city's evolving urban landscape.

What is the significance of the 'Rainbow Crossing' in Sydney's Surry Hills neighborhood?

The Rainbow Crossing on Campbell Street in Sydney's Surry Hills neighborhood is noted as the original DIY rainbow crossing, symbolizing the area's connection to the LGBTQ+ community and its cultural significance.

Which areas in Melbourne, Australia, have sizable gay communities?

In Melbourne, Victoria, city fringe suburbs such as Collingwood and South Yarra are known for having sizable gay communities. Melbourne itself was ranked as the fourth most LGBT-friendly city globally by Big 7 Travel.

What is 'Boyztown' in Pattaya, Thailand?

Boyztown in Pattaya, Thailand, is a hub for gay nightlife and entertainment, particularly popular among European and Chinese tourists. While it faced challenges due to rising prices and COVID-19 policies, it was historically a significant draw and supported AIDS-related charity organizations through events like the Pattaya Gay Festival.

What historical context led to the development of gay villages in North America?

The development of gay villages in North America was influenced by the need for safe spaces and community gathering points, particularly following events like the Stonewall Rebellion. This marked a shift from relying solely on bars to establishing distinct neighborhoods that reflected LGBTQ+ identity and culture.

What is the 'Gayborhood' in Philadelphia?

Philadelphia's traditional gay village is known as the 'Gayborhood,' comprising several downtown blocks. This area has a well-established LGBTQ+ presence, including clubs, bars, restaurants, and health facilities, and is marked by 68 rainbow street signs.

What is the role of LGBTQ+ communities in urban revitalization according to Richard Florida?

Richard Florida posits that LGBTQ+ communities act as 'canaries of the creative economy.' Their presence in urban areas helps revitalize neighborhoods, attracting investors and jobs, and contributing to stronger, more creative economies in cities that are tolerant of LGBTQ+ populations.

What is the 'Church and Wellesley' area in Toronto?

Church and Wellesley is an LGBT-oriented community in Toronto, Canada, centered around the intersection of Church and Wellesley Streets. Its boundaries are generally defined by the Gay Toronto Tourism Guild and it serves as a significant hub for the city's LGBTQ+ population.

How did Ottawa establish its LGBT-friendly village?

Ottawa officially established its LGBT-friendly village along Bank Street in Centretown on November 4, 2011, following six years of lobbying. This involved installing six street signs at key intersections and adding public art and rainbow flags, recognizing the area's high concentration of LGBT individuals and businesses catering to them.

Which neighborhoods in Paris are considered gay villages?

Le Marais in Paris is recognized as a gay village, with a growing gay presence since the 1980s. Gay establishments are concentrated in the southwestern part of the Marais, particularly near Sainte-Croix de la Bretonnerie and Vieille du Temple streets.

What is unique about Sitges in relation to gay tourism?

Sitges, near Barcelona, is a well-known gay village and a wealthy residential area that hosts several annual gay events, such as Gay Pride and Bears Week. It is also recognized for its gay-friendly accommodation options, particularly for attendees of Barcelona's Circuit Festival, and features the first monument dedicated to the gay community.

Why might gay villages not be as prominent in countries with progressive LGBTQ+ histories, like Sweden?

In countries like Sweden, where same-sex activity was legalized early (1944), there was less historical need for the formation of concentrated, safe gathering spaces like gay villages that arose in places with more repressive laws. While areas like Södermalm in Stockholm and Punavuori/Kallio in Helsinki remain trendy for gay people, they do not typically have predominantly gay populations.

What are some recognized gay villages in England?

England has several recognized gay villages, including areas in Birmingham, Leeds (The Calls), Manchester (Canal Street), and London (Old Compton Street).

Which areas in Sydney, Australia, are known for their large gay populations?

In Sydney, New South Wales, Potts Point (nicknamed 'Poofs Point') and nearby Elizabeth Bay ('Betty Bay') are renowned for hosting the city's largest gay population and numerous gay-run businesses. Darlinghurst is also a historically significant gay area, with Oxford Street known as the 'Golden Mile' for its concentration of LGBT bars and clubs.

What is the significance of the 'Gayborhood' in Washington, D.C.?

The Dupont Circle and Logan Circle areas in Washington, D.C., are recognized for their high concentration of gay-oriented bars, restaurants, and shops. Dupont Circle is also known for hosting the annual High Heel Drag Queen Race, highlighting the area's vibrant LGBTQ+ culture.

What is the 'GaYbor District' in Tampa, Florida?

The GaYbor District, located within the Ybor City National Historic Landmark District in Tampa, Florida, emerged in the early 21st century as the center of gay and lesbian life in the Tampa Bay area. It is home to the majority of the region's gay bars, dance clubs, restaurants, and service organizations.

What is the significance of the 'Stonewall Inn' in relation to gay villages?

The Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, Manhattan, is historically significant as the site of the 1969 Stonewall Rebellion. This event is considered a pivotal moment that spurred the development of gay ghettos and transformed the gay community's profile and dynamics, leading to the establishment of gay villages across North America.

What is the 'LGBTQ+ portal' mentioned in the article?

The LGBTQ+ portal is a navigational link provided within the article, serving as a central point to access a wide range of topics related to LGBTQ+ people, history, culture, rights, and issues.

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Defining the Gay Village

Geographical Identity

A gay village, often referred to as a gayborhood or gaybourhood, signifies a geographical area with recognized boundaries that is predominantly inhabited or frequented by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) individuals. These areas serve as vital hubs within urban landscapes.

Cultural Epicenters

These districts typically host a concentration of LGBTQ+-oriented establishments, including bars, nightclubs, restaurants, boutiques, and bookstores. They often function as visible centers of LGBTQ+ culture and social life.

Oases of Acceptance

Gay villages can represent crucial safe havens or "oases" within cities where LGBTQ+ individuals may face societal hostility or discrimination. They provide spaces for community building, mutual support, and the expression of shared cultural values.

Urban Dynamics and Social Roles

Gentrification and Urban Renaissance

Historically, the formation of gay villages often stemmed from sociopolitical marginalization, leading LGBTQ+ individuals to congregate in specific urban areas for safety. These neighborhoods, sometimes economically depressed or socially disorganized inner-city districts, have frequently become sites of urban renaissance. LGBTQ+ communities, often acting as pioneers, have played a significant role in revitalizing these areas, leading to increased property values and the process of gentrification.

The Double-Edged Sword of Progress

While gentrification can improve neighborhood infrastructure and economic vitality, it also presents challenges. Rising property values can price out long-term LGBTQ+ residents and businesses, potentially altering the very character that defined the village. This phenomenon highlights the complex relationship between community development and economic pressures.

Canaries of the Creative Economy

Urban theorist Richard Florida posits that LGBTQ+ communities and their associated villages act as indicators of a city's tolerance and economic dynamism. Cities with vibrant gay villages and greater LGBTQ+ acceptance often exhibit stronger, more creative economies, attracting talent and fostering innovation. They are seen as vital components of the "creative class" ecosystem.

Historical Evolution

Early Origins

Schöneberg in Berlin emerged as arguably the world's first gay village in the 1920s. Prior to the 1960s and 70s in the United States, LGBTQ+ social networks primarily developed within bars, often located in areas subject to close police surveillance and zoning regulations.

The Stonewall Impact

The 1969 Stonewall Rebellion in New York City marked a pivotal moment, transforming the visibility and dynamics of the LGBTQ+ community. This event, alongside similar incidents, catalyzed the emergence of distinct gay neighborhoods across North America, signifying a shift from clandestine bar gatherings to visible community spaces.

National Recognition

The Stonewall Inn's designation as a National Monument in 2016 underscores the historical significance of these community centers in the broader LGBTQ+ rights movement.

Defining Characteristics

Global Variation

Gay villages exhibit considerable diversity across cities and countries. Some cities feature highly defined central villages, while others have multiple smaller "satellite" villages or more dispersed LGBTQ+ populations integrated into broader liberal countercultures.

Economic Influence

The economic contributions of gay villages are notable. Events like Pride parades and festivals attract significant tourism revenue, and the acceptance of LGBTQ+ culture is often perceived as a marker of urban sophistication and economic vitality.

Community Identity and Stereotypes

The evolution of gay villages can sometimes reinforce stereotypes, particularly regarding the prevalence of a "gay, white, affluent, professional" image. This can inadvertently marginalize LGBTQ+ individuals who do not fit this profile, such as people of color or those with lower incomes, who may be displaced by gentrification.

Consumerization & Economy

Visibility and Investment

The increased visibility of gay communities, often centered around Pride events held within these villages, attracts substantial investment and tourism. Cities increasingly recognize the economic value of LGBTQ+ acceptance and culture, viewing gay-friendly events as lucrative opportunities.

Economic Catalysts

Gay men and women have historically been instrumental in the revitalization of urban areas. Their presence, combined with the establishment of businesses and cultural venues, often stimulates economic activity and attracts further investment, contributing to the overall economic health of the city.

Global Examples

North America

Significant gay villages exist across North America, including Greenwich Village and Chelsea in New York City, The Castro in San Francisco, Davie Village in Vancouver, Le Village gai in Montreal, and Boystown in Chicago. Cities like Provincetown, MA, and West Hollywood, CA, are notable for their high concentrations of LGBTQ+ residents.

Europe

European cities also feature prominent gay districts, such as Le Marais in Paris, Chueca in Madrid, and areas around Warmoesstraat in Amsterdam. Birmingham, Manchester, and London host notable gay villages within England.

Australasia & Asia

In Australia, areas like Oxford Street in Sydney's Surry Hills and Collingwood/South Yarra in Melbourne are recognized LGBTQ+ hubs. Tokyo's Shinjuku Ni-chōme is known for its high density of gay bars, while Pattaya, Thailand, features Boyztown.

Demographic Data

Brazil: LGBTQ+ Population

Surveys indicate significant LGBTQ+ populations in Brazilian cities. Rio de Janeiro, for instance, has a notable percentage of gay and bisexual male residents. The table below highlights the top cities based on the percentage of LGBTQ+ residents.

Top Brazilian Cities in LGBTQ+ Population by Percentage
Rank	City	Percentage of Population
1	Rio de Janeiro	14.30%
2	Fortaleza	9.35%
3	Manaus	8.35%
4	São Paulo	8.20%
5	Salvador	8.05%
6	Brasília	7.95%
7	Belo Horizonte	6.85%
8	Curitiba	6.55%
9	Porto Alegre	5.95%
10	Cuiabá	5.65%

United States: LGBTQ+ Population

Data from the American Community Survey reveals significant LGBTQ+ populations in major US cities and states. San Francisco consistently ranks high in terms of both the number and percentage of LGBTQ+ residents. The following tables summarize key demographic findings.

Top US Cities by LGBTQ+ Population (Number of Residents):

Top US Cities in LGBTQ+ Population by Number of Residents
Rank	City	% of Population	LGBTQ+ Population	US Population Rank
1	New York City	4.5%	377,100	1
2	Los Angeles	5.6%	222,488	2
3	Chicago	5.7%	153,843	3
4	San Francisco	15.4%	134,716	17
5	Phoenix	6.4%	106,112	5
6	Houston	4.4%	101,772	4
7	San Diego	6.8%	96,220	8
8	Seattle	12.9%	95,621	18
9	Dallas	7.0%	93,730	9
10	Boston	12.3%	84,787	24

Top US Cities by LGBTQ+ Population (Percentage of Residents):

Top US Cities in LGBTQ+ Population by Percentage of Residents
Rank	City	Percentage of Population	LGBTQ+ Population
1	San Francisco	15.4%	134,716
2	Seattle	12.9%	95,621
3	Atlanta	12.8%	63,698
4	Minneapolis	12.5%	53,744
5	Boston	12.3%	84,787
6	Sacramento	9.8%	49,341
7	Portland	8.8%	57,233
8	Denver	8.2%	58,701
9	Washington, D.C.	8.1%	57,561
10	Orlando	7.7%	21,930

Top US States by LGBTQ+ Population (Percentage of Residents):

Top US States in LGBTQ+ Population by Percentage of Residents
Rank	State	% of State Population	# of Residents
1	New Hampshire	6.6%	89,430
2	Washington	5.7%	428,184
3	Massachusetts	5.7%	391,761
4	Maine	5.2%	69,731
5	California	5.2%	2,055,820
6	Colorado	5.1%	289,935
7	Vermont	5.1%	31,841
8	New Mexico	4.9%	102,753
9	Minnesota	4.7%	263,200

Related Concepts

Community Structures

Concepts such as ethnic enclaves and homosocialization provide frameworks for understanding the social dynamics within gay villages. The existence of specific spaces like lesbian bars and the broader field of LGBT tourism are closely related.

Geographical Context

Understanding the historical development and spatial organization of gay villages connects to broader themes in urban geography and sociology, including the role of LGBTQ+ people in urban planning and the evolution of gay streets and gay villages in the UK.

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Urban Sanctuaries

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Defining the Gay Village 🏘️

📍 Geographical Identity

🛍️ Cultural Epicenters

🛡️ Oases of Acceptance

Urban Dynamics and Social Roles 🏙️

🔄 Gentrification and Urban Renaissance

⚖️ The Double-Edged Sword of Progress

💡 Canaries of the Creative Economy

Historical Evolution ⏳

🌍 Early Origins

✊ The Stonewall Impact

🏛️ National Recognition

Defining Characteristics traits

🌐 Global Variation

📈 Economic Influence

⚖️ Community Identity and Stereotypes

Consumerization & Economy 💰

🎉 Visibility and Investment

🤝 Economic Catalysts

Global Examples 🌍

🇺🇸 North America

🇪🇺 Europe

🌏 Australasia & Asia

Demographic Data 📊

🇧🇷 Brazil: LGBTQ+ Population

🇺🇸 United States: LGBTQ+ Population

Related Concepts 🔗

🌳 Community Structures

🗺️ Geographical Context

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining the Gay Village

Geographical Identity

Cultural Epicenters

Oases of Acceptance

Urban Dynamics and Social Roles

Gentrification and Urban Renaissance

The Double-Edged Sword of Progress

Canaries of the Creative Economy

Historical Evolution

Early Origins

The Stonewall Impact

National Recognition

Defining Characteristics

Global Variation

Economic Influence

Community Identity and Stereotypes

Consumerization & Economy

Visibility and Investment

Economic Catalysts

Global Examples

North America

Europe

Australasia & Asia

Demographic Data

Brazil: LGBTQ+ Population

United States: LGBTQ+ Population

Related Concepts

Community Structures

Geographical Context

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice