Hydrological Dynamics
An in-depth examination of China's water resources, exploring the intricate balance of supply, demand, and quality amidst rapid development and environmental pressures.
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Overview
A Dual Challenge
China's water resources are characterized by a critical duality: pervasive water shortages coupled with extensive water pollution. This complex situation is exacerbated by a burgeoning population, rapid economic expansion, and historical deficiencies in environmental oversight, collectively intensifying both water demand and contamination levels across the nation.
Global Consumption Leader
Driven by sustained economic growth and its immense population, China stands as one of the foremost global consumers of water. Annually, the nation withdraws approximately 600 billion cubic meters of water, a figure that significantly surpasses the United States by 120 billion cubic meters, though it remains 160 billion cubic meters less than India. This scale of consumption underscores the profound national and international significance of China's domestic water policies.
Limiting Sustainable Development
The intertwined issues of water quality degradation and quantitative scarcity are increasingly recognized as fundamental constraints on China's trajectory toward sustainable economic and infrastructural development. Addressing these challenges is paramount for the nation's long-term stability and prosperity.
Supply
Resource Distribution
As of 2022, China's surface water resources were estimated at 2598.44 cubic kilometers, while groundwater resources totaled 792.44 cubic kilometers. Accounting for the interconnectedness of surface and groundwater systems, the total available renewable resource was 2708.81 cubic kilometers. A significant geographical disparity exists, with approximately 80% of these resources concentrated in Southern China. In 2016, surface water constituted 82% of the total supply, with groundwater making up the remaining 18%, a proportion that is higher in the less precipitation-rich northern regions.
Progress in Access
Over the past three decades, China has achieved substantial progress in enhancing access to improved drinking water for its populace. The United Nations reports that nearly a quarter of the global advancements in this area between 1990 and 2010 occurred in China, benefiting 457 million citizens through improved water availability and quality. This progress is largely attributed to the expansion of water pipe systems, highlighting the efficacy of targeted domestic policy initiatives.
Demand
Water Stress & Scarcity
Numerous densely populated regions across China are experiencing high (40-80% of renewable groundwater extracted annually) to extremely high (>80%) levels of water stress, as indicated by the World Resources Institute. The WRI's comprehensive water risk index further assigns a significant portion of the country a risk rating between 3 and 5, underscoring the severe implications for sustainable economic and infrastructural development.
Drought Impacts
In 2022, the Yangtze River basin endured a severe drought, causing the river's water levels to recede to their lowest point since 1865. This environmental crisis led to the shutdown or reduced output of hydropower plants in Sichuan, illustrating the direct and significant impact of water scarcity on critical infrastructure and energy supply.
Per Capita Water Poverty
Despite its vast population, China possesses only about 6% of the world's total water resources, while accounting for approximately 18% of the global population. Consequently, China's per capita water usage is just over a quarter of the global average, a condition often described as "water poverty."
Sectoral Consumption
In 2022, China's total water usage reached 599.82 cubic kilometers, representing approximately 20% of its renewable resources. Agricultural irrigation remains the dominant consumer, with 626,000 square kilometers irrigated in 2006. The distribution of annual water consumption by sector in 2022 is detailed below:
Efficiency Gains
Historically, China's water usage was characterized by inefficiency. However, significant improvements have been observed since 1997. Water usage per 10,000 RMB of GDP and per 10,000 RMB of industrial added value has substantially decreased. Furthermore, water usage per irrigated mu of agricultural land declined from 492 to 364 mยณ between 1997 and 2022, while overall per capita water usage remained stable.
Transfers
Groundwater Depletion & Subsidence
Over-extraction of groundwater and declining water tables represent significant environmental challenges in China, particularly in the northern regions where irrigated land has expanded considerably. Statistics from the Ministry of Construction reveal over 160 areas nationwide suffering from groundwater over-exploitation, leading to an average annual depletion exceeding 10 billion cubic meters. This has resulted in land subsidence across more than 60,000 square kilometers and serious subsidence in over 50 cities. Flooding also remains a persistent problem.
Spatial Mismatch
A substantial imbalance exists between water resource availability and demand across China. Eastern China, home to 42% of the population and over half of the national GDP, possesses only 18% of the country's total water resources, highlighting a critical spatial mismatch that necessitates large-scale interventions.
Major Diversion Projects
Large-scale water transfer projects are a cornerstone of China's strategy to address water scarcity. The ambitious SouthโNorth Water Transfer Project aims to divert water from the Yangtze River to alleviate shortages in northern regions, supporting industrial and agricultural water consumption. Additionally, projects like the Luanhe-Tianjin and Central Yunnan Water Diversion schemes address regional supply-demand imbalances. The feasibility of multipurpose freshwater coastal reservoirs to capture Yangtze River floodwaters for northern China's water supply and energy storage is also being explored.
Transboundary Implications
The development and diversion of major transboundary rivers originating in China, such as the Brahmaputra and Mekong, pose potential sources of tension with neighboring countries. Upstream dam construction on the Mekong, for instance, has raised concerns in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand. Proposals to reroute Brahmaputra waters northward could similarly strain relations with India and Bangladesh without prior agreements on water sharing. On a smaller scale, the IrtyshโKaramayโรrรผmqi Canal diverts Irtysh River waters to arid Xinjiang, impacting downstream nations like Kazakhstan and Russia.
Desalination & Conservation
In response to water challenges and with an eye towards future exports, China is actively developing its desalination capabilities, aiming to foster an indigenous industry. Many cities have also implemented extensive water conservation and recycling programs. By 2021, China operated 115 seawater desalination plants, boasting a combined capacity exceeding 1.5 million cubic meters per day, demonstrating a commitment to technological solutions for water security.
Quality
Widespread Contamination
The quality of both groundwater and surface water presents a significant challenge across China, stemming from both anthropogenic pollution and natural contamination. The nation's unprecedented economic growth, rapid industrialization, and urbanization, coupled with insufficient investment in fundamental water supply and treatment infrastructure, have collectively led to pervasive water pollution.
Sources of Pollution
Continuous emissions from manufacturing industries are the primary contributors to the deterioration of drinking water quality throughout China. However, the discharge of inadequately treated sewage, accidental industrial spills, and the extensive application of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides also represent major sources of contamination. These water quality issues, when combined with seasonal water scarcity, frequently trigger endemic water shortages affecting millions.
River Health Assessment
In 2006, China's State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) reported that 60% of the country's rivers were polluted to an extent that rendered them unsafe for use as drinking water sources. The 2008 State of the Environment Report by the Ministry of Environmental Protection provided a more detailed assessment:
- The Pearl River and Yangtze River exhibited "good water quality."
- The Songhua River was "slightly polluted" (an improvement from "moderately polluted" in 2006).
- The Liaohe River, Huai River, and Yellow River were "moderately polluted" or "had poor water quality."
- The Haihe River, which traverses Beijing and Tianjin, was "badly polluted."
Broad Impact of Pollution
A 2006 article from the Chinese Embassy in the UK highlighted that approximately 300 million people nationwide lacked access to clean water. Furthermore, nearly 90% of urban underground water and 70% of China's rivers and lakes were affected by pollution. A 2008 report on the Yellow River indicated that one-third of its system was unusable even for agricultural or industrial purposes due to severe pollution from factory discharges and urban sewage, totaling 4.29 billion tonnes of waste and sewage in 2007.
Expert Warnings
In 2006, environmental activist Ma Jun warned of a comprehensive water crisis encompassing shortages, pollution, and quality deterioration. He noted that 400 out of 600 Chinese cities faced varying degrees of water shortages, including 30 of the 32 largest cities, and that 300 million peasants lacked safe drinking water. Ma emphasized the unsustainable situation in the North due to surface water drying and groundwater over-extraction, and the lack of clean water in the South despite abundant resources. A 2005 Guardian article cited Deputy Minister Qiu Baoxing stating over 100 cities faced extreme shortages, with Pan Yue, deputy director of the state environmental protection agency, deeming economic growth unsustainable due to water problems. The World Bank also warned in 2004 of impending conflicts over water allocation.
Health Risks
A 2016 research study revealed dangerous levels of the cancer-causing agent nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in China's water, believed to be a byproduct of local water treatment processes involving heavy chlorination. In 2007, the head of China's national development agency reported that a quarter of the length of China's seven main rivers were so contaminated that contact with the water could harm skin.
Pollution Incidents
Lake Tai Algae Bloom (2007)
In May 2007, a severe bloom of blue-green algae in Lake Tai, Wuxi, emitted a foul odor and disrupted the main drinking water supply for 5.8 million people. This crisis, despite years of known pollution, prompted the city to close or issue notices to over 1,340 polluting factories, with others ordered to clean up or face permanent shutdown. This drastic measure resulted in a 15% reduction in local GDP.
Dongyang Chemical Clashes (2005)
In April 2005, clashes erupted in Dongyang city, Zhejiang Province, due to water pollution from chemical factories in the Juxi Industrial Park. Residents accused the factories of harming crops and causing birth defects. At the time, a quarter of the population lacked clean drinking water, and less than a third of waste was treated, underscoring the severe consequences of unchecked industrial pollution.
Jilin Chemical Plant Explosions (2005)
The 2005 Jilin chemical plant explosions in Jilin City led to a massive discharge of nitrobenzene, a carcinogen, into the Songhua River. This incident necessitated a five-day cutoff of the entire water supply to Harbin city (population 3.8 million) from November 21 to 26, 2005, though officials only acknowledged the pollution as the cause on November 23.
Hubei Fuhe River Ammonia Spill (2013)
In September 2013, the Hubei Shuanghuan Science and Technology Stock Co. discharged ammonia into the Fuhe River in central Hubei province, poisoning at least 100 tonnes (220,000 lb) of fish. This incident highlighted the ongoing risks of industrial waste discharge into vital waterways.
Natural Contamination: Arsenic
Large segments of China's aquifers are affected by natural arsenic contamination. Long-term exposure through drinking contaminated groundwater leads to arsenic poisoning, first detected in the 1950s. As water demand increases and wells are drilled deeper into arsenic-rich aquifers, cases of poisoning are rising, with over 30,000 reported cases and approximately 25 million people exposed to dangerously high levels.
Natural Contamination: Fluoride
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that over 26 million people in China suffer from dental fluorosis (tooth weakening) due to elevated fluoride levels in their drinking water. Additionally, more than 1 million cases of skeletal fluorosis (bone weakening) are attributed to contaminated drinking water. High fluoride concentrations in groundwater often present an unaffordable defluorination challenge.
Management
Transition & Challenges
Water supply and sanitation in China are undergoing a profound transformation, grappling with significant challenges such as rapid urbanization and a widening economic disparity between urban and rural areas. Despite these hurdles, substantial financial investments in water infrastructure were made between 1990 and 2005, as reported by the World Bank.
Infrastructure Improvements
During the 1990-2005 period, urban water supply coverage in China dramatically increased from 50% to 90%. While seasonal water shortages persist in many cities, overall water usage stabilized due to a decrease in industrial consumption offsetting increased demand from a growing population. Urban wastewater sewage treatment capacity more than tripled from 15% to 52%, and the absolute release of municipal pollutants saw a slight decrease since 2000. A 2007 SEPA report affirmed that water quality in central drinking water sources for major cities was "mainly good."
Governance Structure
The responsibility for water management in China is distributed among several government agencies, leading to a fragmented governance structure. Water pollution falls under environmental authorities, while water supply is managed by the Ministry of Water Resources. Sewage treatment is overseen by the Ministry of Construction, and groundwater management is within the purview of the Ministry of Land and Resources. China employs a six-level grading system for water quality, ranging from Grade I (best) to Grade VI (most polluted).
Water Resource Zones
China's water resources are systematically divided into 10 primary Water Resource Zones (WRZs), encompassing 31 provincial-level divisions (excluding Special Administrative Regions). Six of these WRZs are located in North China (Songhua River, Liaohe River, Haihe River, Yellow River, Huaihe River, and northwest rivers), while four are in South China (Yangtze River, southeast rivers, Pearl River, and southwest rivers), reflecting the nation's diverse hydrological landscape and management complexities.
Five-Year Plans
Strategic Targets
In alignment with the Scientific Outlook on Development, China's Tenth and Eleventh Five-Year Plans established explicit targets for reducing water pollution. The Eleventh Five-Year Plan, in particular, aimed for a 30% decrease in water consumption per unit of industrial increase, effectively balancing water usage limitations with economic and industrial growth objectives. This strategic planning significantly contributed to improved water quality post-11th Five-Year Plan.
Consumption Reduction
The Thirteenth Five-Year Plan, introduced in 2016, further reinforced these efforts by setting an annual water consumption limit of 670 billion cubic meters. These comprehensive guidelines were instrumental in China achieving its first reduction in water consumption in over a decade in 2014, demonstrating the impact of national strategic planning on resource management.
Policy
Monitoring Network
In the 1990s, the central government established the National Environmental Quality Monitoring Network-Surface Water Monitoring System. This system enabled direct reporting of water pollution data from various rivers and lakes to the central government, providing a crucial foundation for informed policy-making and environmental oversight.
Key Legislation
China has enacted several pivotal laws to address water usage, waste, pollution, and disaster preparedness:
- Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law (Amended 2017): Originally passed in 1984, this amendment significantly revised parameters for water security, detailing violations, enforcement, and increased legal liabilities for polluters and supervisory agencies.
- Resource Tax Law (2020): This law empowered local governments to set tax rates on natural resource usage, including water for the first time, thereby promoting water preservation and waste reduction at the local level.
- Water Law (Amended 2002): First enacted in 1988, this amendment marked a turning point in water security recognition in the early 2000s, addressing water allocation, extraction rights, usage, conservation, pollution prevention, and basin management.
Enforcement & Regulation
To bolster enforcement, the central government initiated the National Specially Monitored Firms program in 2007, directly overseeing 3,115 water-polluting firms and 658 sewage treatment plants. Furthermore, the State Council's 2011 "Decision on Accelerating the Regulation of Water Consumption" underscored the critical importance of water management in the face of climate change, establishing a national annual water consumption limit of 670 billion cubic meters, disaggregated by industry, region, and product.
Analysis
Commendable Progress
China's efforts over the past two decades to enhance water quality have garnered praise. Significant strides have been made in limiting industrial and agricultural pollution, improving water pipe infrastructure, and substantially increasing investments in water conservancy projects since the early 2000s. The designation of the 2011 Central Document No.1, "The Decision on Accelerating the Reform and Development of Water Conservancy," as the year's most notable policy document, is seen as a strong commitment to water security.
Persistent Criticisms
Despite notable investments and early legislative recognition, China faces criticism for the delayed implementation of effective water resource management practices, with many arguing that robust enforcement only began in the mid-2010s. Regulations outlined in the Water Laws were not consistently enforced for nearly a decade, allowing issues to escalate. The South-to-North Water Diversion Project, initiated in 2002, also faced significant pushback regarding its economic justification, local community disruption, and environmental strain on southern China, although its construction continues.
Expert Recommendations & Failures
In 2005, experts advocated for China to adopt Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) to achieve sustainable development. Ma Xiancong, a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, highlighted in 2007 governmental failures or tacit consent in areas such as land appropriation, pollution, excessive mining, and the neglect of environmental impact assessments. A notable example from 2006 involved the State Environmental Protection Administration revealing numerous hydroelectric projects that had violated Environmental Impact Assessment Law.
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References
References
- FAO Aquastat:China Profile, Version 2010
- China Warned of Water Crisis by 2030, "china.org.cn", June 6, 2002
- Experts warn of water crisis, China Daily, May 20, 2005
- China Aims for Bigger Share of South Asia's Water Lifeline, by Brahma Chellaney, Japan Times, June 26, 2007
- Wu et al. (1999). รขยยWater Pollution and Human Health in China.รขยย Environmental Health Perspectives, vol.107, no.4. pp.251-256.)
- 100 Chinese cities face water crisis, The Guardian, June 8, 2005
- "China pays water price for progress", Water 21, Magazine of the International Water Association, August 2007, p. 6
- Ministry of Environmental Protection:The State of the Environment of China in 2008, June 5, 2009
- Tackling China's water crisis
- China chemical spill kills thousands of fish bbc 4 September 2013
- UNICEF:China:Child's environment and sanitation, accessed on December 24, 2009
- BBC News. China to clean up polluted lake. 27 October 2007.
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