Who was Henry Benedict Stuart, and what were his primary roles and titles?

Henry Benedict Stuart was a cardinal and the third and final Jacobite heir to publicly claim the thrones of Great Britain and Ireland. He was the younger grandson of King James II of England and spent his entire life in the Papal States, eventually becoming the Dean of the College of Cardinals and Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia and Velletri.

What was Henry Benedict Stuart's full birth name?

Henry Benedict Stuart's full birth name was Henry Benedict Thomas Edward Maria Clement Francis Xavier Stuart.

When and where was Henry Benedict Stuart born?

Henry Benedict Stuart was born in exile at the Palazzo Muti in Rome, Papal States, on 6 March 1725.

Who were Henry Benedict Stuart's parents and what were their significant titles or epithets?

His father was James Francis Edward Stuart, known to his opponents as "the Old Pretender," and his mother was Princess Maria Clementina Sobieska, who was the granddaughter of the Polish King and Lithuanian Grand-Duke, John III Sobieski.

How did Henry Benedict Stuart's claim to the British and Irish thrones relate to his family members?

Henry Benedict Stuart was the younger grandson of King James II of England and was the third and final Jacobite heir to publicly claim the thrones of Great Britain and Ireland. His father, James Francis Edward Stuart, was known as "The Old Pretender," and his elder brother, Charles Edward Stuart, was known as "The Young Pretender" or "Bonnie Prince Charlie."

What distinguished Henry Benedict Stuart's approach to the British throne compared to his father and brother?

Unlike his father, James Francis Edward Stuart, and his elder brother, Charles Edward Stuart, Henry Benedict Stuart made no effort to seize the thrones of Great Britain and Ireland.

By what name was Henry Benedict Stuart known to Jacobites after his brother's death, and how did the Papacy refer to him?

After his brother Charles's death in 1788, Henry became known by Jacobites as Henry IX and I. However, the Papacy did not recognize Henry as the lawful ruler of Great Britain and Ireland and instead referred to him as the "Cardinal Duke of York."

What was Henry Benedict Stuart's most widely recognized title, and who granted it to him?

He was most widely known as the "Duke of York," a title granted to him by his father within the Jacobite peerage, which was a system of hereditary titles recognized by Jacobite claimants to the British throne.

Who baptized Henry Benedict Stuart, and what was the historical context of his birth?

Henry Benedict Stuart was baptized by Pope Benedict XIII on the same day he was born, 6 March 1725. His birth occurred 37 years after his grandfather, James II and VII, lost the thrones of England and Scotland, and ten years after his father's failed attempt to regain them during the Jacobite rising of 1715.

How was Henry Benedict Stuart's personality described in comparison to his elder brother Charles?

Henry was described as an intelligent child, more introverted and cautious in his approach to problems than his older brother Charles. He was also characterized as pious and mild-mannered.

When did Henry Benedict Stuart return to Italy after his involvement in the Jacobite rising?

Henry Stuart returned to Italy, aged 21, after the defeat at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, which effectively ended the Jacobite rising.

When and by whom was Henry Benedict Stuart created a Cardinal-Deacon?

On 30 June 1747, Pope Benedict XIV conferred the tonsure upon him and created him Cardinal-Deacon of Santa Maria in Campitelli in a special consistory held on 3 July 1747. The tonsure is a traditional rite of initiation into the clergy in some Christian churches, involving the shaving of a part of the head.

Why was Henry Benedict Stuart's elder brother, Charles, not in favor of his ecclesiastical honors?

His elder brother Charles was not in favor of Henry receiving ecclesiastical honors because he believed they would only serve to further religious prejudice against the Stuart family, potentially hindering their political aspirations for the throne of Great Britain.

When was Henry Benedict Stuart ordained a priest, and what was his brother's reaction?

Henry Benedict Stuart was ordained a priest on 1 September 1748. His brother Charles was dismayed by this, as he had hoped Henry might still make a politically advantageous marriage, considering the cardinalate was a rank rather than a priestly order, which would not have precluded marriage.

What significant ecclesiastical position did Henry Benedict Stuart hold from 1751 until his death?

From 1751 until his death in 1807, Henry Benedict Stuart served as the Arch-Priest of St. Peter's Basilica, a prominent role within the Vatican responsible for the administration of the basilica.

What were the sources of Henry Benedict Stuart's substantial income during his ecclesiastical career?

His income was enormous, derived from numerous ecclesiastical preferments, including abbeys and other pluralities in Flanders, Spain, Naples, and France, which amounted to 40,000 Pounds in British money at the time. He also held sinecure benefices and owned territory in Mexico, both of which contributed significantly to his revenue.

How did Louis XV of France compensate Cardinal Stuart, and for what reason?

Louis XV of France bestowed upon Cardinal Stuart the abbeys of Auchin and St. Amand. This was compensation for having to evict Henry's brother, Charles Edward Stuart, from France, as required by the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, which ended the War of the Austrian Succession.

What were Henry Benedict Stuart's responsibilities as Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals?

As Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals, his responsibilities included administering all property, fees, funds, and revenue belonging to the College of Cardinals, celebrating the requiem Mass for a deceased cardinal, and managing the registry of the *Acta Consistoralia*, which are the official records of consistories (meetings of cardinals).

In which papal conclave did Henry Benedict Stuart participate in 1758?

Henry Benedict Stuart participated in the 1758 papal conclave, which ultimately elected Pope Clement XIII. A papal conclave is the process by which the College of Cardinals elects a new Pope.

What was Henry Benedict Stuart's final major ecclesiastical appointment before his death?

On 26 September 1803, he was appointed Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, which also meant he succeeded to the See of Ostia and Velletri, a suburbicarian diocese near Rome, a position typically held by the Dean.

What unique practice did Henry Benedict Stuart continue as the last claimant to the British throne?

Henry Benedict Stuart was the last claimant to the British throne to "touch" the sick, a practice believed to cure them from the "King's Evil," which was a historical term for scrofula, a form of tuberculosis, believed to be curable by the touch of a monarch.

How was Henry Benedict Stuart generally characterized in his later life?

He was described as a beatific, abstemious, wealthy, celibate aesthete who lived to a great age, and was considered 'inoffensive and respectable' until the end of his life.

How did the French Revolution impact Henry Benedict Stuart's financial situation?

The French Revolution led to him losing his French Royal benefices and sacrificing many other resources to aid Pope Pius VI. Additionally, the French seizure of his property in Frascati caused him to fall into poverty.

What valuable item did Henry Benedict Stuart sell due to his financial hardship?

Due to his financial hardship, Henry Benedict Stuart was forced to sell the Stuart Sapphire, a significant historical jewel associated with the Stuart family.

How did the British government assist Henry Benedict Stuart financially, and how did he perceive this aid?

The British Minister in Venice arranged for Henry to receive an annuity of £4,000 from George III of Great Britain. While the British government presented this as an act of charity, Henry and the Jacobites viewed it as a first installment of money legally owed to him, specifically referencing the English dowry of his grandmother, Mary of Modena, which the British government had long promised to return.

When did the Vatican first recognize George III as the King of Great Britain and Ireland, and what was Henry's reaction?

In November 1792, the Vatican first referred to George III as the King of Great Britain and Ireland, rather than the Elector of Hanover. Henry protested this recognition, suggesting that the "insult" would prevent him from visiting Rome again, as it undermined his family's claim to the throne.

What unusual political proposition did the French Directory make regarding Henry Benedict Stuart in 1798?

In 1798, during the Irish Rebellion, the French Directory suggested to the United Irishmen that Henry Benedict Stuart be elevated as "King of the Irish." This was part of an effort to rally the Catholic population during General Jean Joseph Amable Humbert's landing in County Mayo, despite the French army's anti-clerical stance.

Why did the French Directory's plan to make Henry Benedict Stuart King of the Irish ultimately fail?

The French Directory's plan, which aimed to establish Henry as the head of a French client state in Ireland, was ultimately vetoed by Wolfe Tone, the Protestant republican leader of the United Irishmen, who sought a different form of governance for Ireland.

When and where did Henry Benedict Stuart die?

Henry Benedict Stuart died in Frascati, Rome, Papal States, on 13 July 1807, at the age of 82.

What speculation exists among modern historians regarding Henry Benedict Stuart's personal life?

Some modern historians have speculated whether Henry Benedict Stuart was homosexual, based on contemporary accounts and his close relationships with certain individuals.

Which contemporary figures provided accounts that fueled speculation about Henry Benedict Stuart's personal life?

Contemporary accounts from Hester Lynch Thrale and the diplomat Giuseppe Gorani contributed to speculation about Henry's personal life. Gorani, for instance, noted the presence of many handsome clerics in Henry's palace, though he admitted to insufficient evidence to confirm his suspicions.

What was the nature of Henry Benedict Stuart's relationship with his majordomo, Giovanni Lercari?

Henry Benedict Stuart had a close attachment to his majordomo, Giovanni Lercari, whom he was said to have "loved beyond measure." This relationship caused serious tensions with his father, James.

How did James Francis Edward Stuart react to Henry's relationship with Giovanni Lercari in 1752?

In 1752, Henry's father, James Francis Edward Stuart, attempted to have Giovanni Lercari dismissed from Rome due to the close attachment between Henry and his majordomo, indicating his disapproval of the relationship.

How was the public scandal concerning Henry Benedict Stuart and Giovanni Lercari avoided?

A potential public scandal was narrowly avoided through the intervention of Pope Benedict XIV, leading to an agreement that Lercari would leave Henry's household. Lercari was later made Archbishop of Genoa, suggesting a resolution that maintained decorum.

Who was Angelo Cesarini, and what was his relationship with Henry Benedict Stuart in later life?

Angelo Cesarini was a nobleman from Perugia with whom Henry Benedict Stuart became close from 1769 onwards, after his father's death. Under Henry's protection, Cesarini received various honors, became a canon of the Frascati cathedral, and in 1801, was made Bishop of Milevi. Henry died with Cesarini at his side, having been close for 32 years.

What significant historical items did Henry Benedict Stuart bequeath to the future George IV?

In his will, Henry Benedict Stuart bequeathed the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom to the Prince of Wales, who would later become King George IV. This act symbolically brought the Jacobite cause to a close, as it passed the symbols of monarchy to the reigning house.

Where is Henry Benedict Stuart buried, along with his family members?

Henry Benedict Stuart, his brother Charles, his father James, and his mother Maria Clementina Sobieska are all buried in the crypt of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City, a significant burial site for many Popes and historical figures.

Who designed the Monument to the Royal Stuarts in St. Peter's Basilica, and who commissioned its creation?

The Monument to the Royal Stuarts, located on one of the columns in St. Peter's Basilica, was designed by the renowned sculptor Antonio Canova. It was originally commissioned by Angelo Cesarini, who served as the executor of Henry Benedict Stuart's estate.

Who contributed to the commissioning of the Royal Stuarts monument, and who funded its restoration in the 20th century?

George IV, the recipient of the Stuart Crown Jewels, was among the subscribers who contributed to the commissioning of the monument. Later, in the 1940s, the monument was restored at the expense of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother.

What was Henry Benedict Stuart's first titular church as a Cardinal Deacon?

On 13 July 1747, Henry Benedict Stuart was assigned as Cardinal Deacon of Santa Maria in Portico (Campitelli), which was his first titular church as a cardinal.

When did Henry Benedict Stuart become a Cardinal Priest of Santa Maria in Portico?

He became a Cardinal Priest of Santa Maria in Portico on 16 September 1748, a promotion from his previous rank as Cardinal Deacon of the same church.

Which titular church did Henry Benedict Stuart hold as Cardinal Priest from December 1752?

From 18 December 1752, he held the titular church of Santi XII Apostoli as a Cardinal Priest, indicating a change in his assigned church within the College of Cardinals.

What was the duration of Henry Benedict Stuart's tenure as Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati?

Henry Benedict Stuart served as Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati from 13 July 1761 to 26 September 1803, a period spanning over four decades.

What unique arrangement did Henry Benedict Stuart have with the church of San Lorenzo in Damaso?

From 14 January 1763, he held San Lorenzo in Damaso as *Comendatario*, meaning he held it *in commendam*. This was a temporary administration of a benefice, held in addition to his suburbicarian sees, as was customary for the cardinal vice-chancellor.

When did Henry Benedict Stuart become the Sub-dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals?

Henry Benedict Stuart became the Sub-dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals in March 1774, a position that typically leads to the deanship.

In which papal conclaves did Henry Benedict Stuart participate as a cardinal elector?

He participated as a cardinal elector in the papal conclaves of 1758, 1769, 1774–75, and 1799–1800, playing a role in the election of multiple Popes during his long ecclesiastical career.

How was Henry Benedict Stuart's coat of arms differenced to reflect his claim to the throne?

During the pretense of his father and brother, Henry Benedict Stuart claimed a coat of arms consisting of those of the kingdom, but differenced by a "crescent argent," which is a white crescent. This heraldic mark is traditionally used to denote the second son in a family's armorial bearings.

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Introduction

The Last Jacobite Claimant

Henry Benedict Thomas Edward Maria Clement Francis Xavier Stuart, known historically as the Cardinal Duke of York, held a unique position in 18th-century European history. As the younger grandson of King James II of England, he was the third and final Jacobite heir to publicly assert a claim to the thrones of Great Britain and Ireland. Unlike his father, James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender"), and his elder brother, Charles Edward Stuart (the "Young Pretender" or "Bonnie Prince Charlie"), Henry chose a life of ecclesiastical service, making no active effort to seize the thrones.

A Life in the Papal States

Henry spent his entire life within the Papal States, rising through the ranks of the Roman Catholic Church. He became one of the longest-serving cardinals in history, eventually attaining the esteemed positions of Dean of the College of Cardinals and Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia and Velletri. While Jacobites recognized him as "Henry IX and I" after his brother Charles's death in 1788, the Papacy consistently referred to him as the "Cardinal Duke of York," a title also widely used and granted to him by his father within the Jacobite peerage.

Early Life

Birth in Roman Exile

Born in exile at the Palazzo Muti in Rome on March 6, 1725, Henry's birth occurred 37 years after his grandfather, James II and VII, lost the British thrones, and a decade after his father's unsuccessful attempt to reclaim them. He was baptized on the very day of his birth by Pope Benedict XIII, underscoring his deep connection to the Catholic Church from infancy. His parents were James Francis Edward Stuart, known to his adversaries as "the Old Pretender," and Princess Maria Klementyna Sobieska, a granddaughter of the distinguished Polish King and Lithuanian Grand-Duke, John III Sobieski.

Character and Early Endeavors

Accounts describe Henry as an intelligent child, demonstrating superior literacy skills compared to his elder brother, Charles. He was characterized as more introverted and cautious in his approach to challenges, possessing a pious and mild-mannered disposition. In 1745, at the age of 20, Henry traveled to France to support his brother, Prince Charles Edward Stuart, in preparing for the Jacobite rising of 1745. He was nominally placed in command of a French Royal Army cross-channel invasion force of approximately 10,000 men, though this force never departed from Dunkirk. Subsequently, he served under Maurice de Saxe during the siege of Antwerp. Following the decisive defeat at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, Henry, then 21, returned to Italy, his direct involvement in military campaigns concluded.

Ecclesiastical Career

Rapid Ascent in the Church

Henry's ecclesiastical journey began swiftly. On June 30, 1747, Pope Benedict XIV conferred the tonsure upon him and, in a special consistory held on July 3, 1747, created him Cardinal-Deacon of Santa Maria in Campitelli. He was promoted through the four minor orders by Benedict XIV on August 27, 1747, and received the subdiaconate on August 18, 1748, followed by the diaconate on August 25, 1748. His elder brother Charles, then in France, expressed disapproval of these ecclesiastical honors, believing they would exacerbate religious prejudice against the Stuart cause. Despite Charles's hopes for a politically advantageous marriage for Henry, his brother was ordained a priest on September 1, 1748, solidifying his commitment to the Church. Later that month, Henry was elevated to Cardinal-Priest, retaining his diaconal church, and in 1751, he was appointed Arch-Priest of St. Peter's Basilica.

Substantial Revenues and Influence

Cardinal Stuart enjoyed immense wealth derived from numerous ecclesiastical preferments. His income from abbeys and other pluralities across Flanders, Spain, Naples, and France amounted to a substantial 40,000 Pounds in British currency of the era. He also held sinecure benefices that generated revenues from Spanish America, including significant contributions from territories in Mexico. King Louis XV of France further compensated the Cardinal with the abbeys of Auchin and St. Amand, a gesture made after having to evict Henry's brother, Charles, in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. In December 1752, his titular seat was changed to Santi Apostoli. In 1758, the Pope appointed him Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals, an office that entailed managing all property, fees, funds, and revenue belonging to the College, celebrating requiem Masses for deceased cardinals, and overseeing the registry of the Acta Consistoralia. He participated in the 1758 papal conclave, which ultimately elected Pope Clement XIII. In October of that year, Henry was made titular Archbishop of Corinth. The following year, he relinquished the title of Santa Maria in Campitelli to assume that of Santa Maria in Trastevere, though he retained the Church of Santi Apostoli *in commendam*.

Dean of the College

On July 13, 1761, Henry was made Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati, a significant promotion within the College of Cardinals. He would reside and work in Frascati for many years, regularly commuting to Rome where his position as vice-chancellor afforded him access to the Palazzo della Cancelleria. His final major ecclesiastical advancement came on September 26, 1803, when he was appointed Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, consequently succeeding to the See of Ostia and Velletri. Notably, Henry was the last claimant to the British throne to perform the traditional "Royal Touch," a practice believed to cure the King's Evil (scrofula). Throughout his long life, he was described as a beatific, abstemious, and wealthy celibate aesthete, maintaining an "inoffensive and respectable" demeanor until his passing.

Later Life

Financial Hardship and British Aid

The tumultuous period of the French Revolution brought significant financial challenges to Cardinal Stuart. He lost his French Royal benefices and made considerable personal sacrifices, dedicating many of his remaining resources to assist Pope Pius VI during the revolutionary upheaval. Further compounding his difficulties, his property in Frascati was seized by the French, leading him into a state of poverty. This dire situation necessitated the sale of the historic Stuart Sapphire. In response, the British Minister in Venice facilitated an annuity of £4,000 from George III of Great Britain. While the British government framed this as an act of charity, Henry and his Jacobite supporters viewed it as a partial payment of funds legally owed to him, specifically referencing the long-unreturned English dowry of his grandmother, Mary of Modena.

Shifting Allegiances and Irish Proposal

The Vatican's stance on the British monarchy evolved during this period. While it had previously recognized James Francis Edward Stuart as James III and VIII, it did not extend this recognition to his son, Charles, who had converted to Anglicanism in 1750. However, the Vatican had also not overtly recognized the Hanoverian monarchs. This changed in November 1792 when the Vatican first referred to George III as the King of Great Britain and Ireland, rather than merely the Elector of Hanover. This diplomatic shift prompted a protest from Henry, who suggested the perceived insult might prevent him from visiting Rome again. Intriguingly, despite their general anti-clericalism and hostility towards the Bourbon monarchy, the French Directory, in 1798, proposed elevating Henry as "King of the Irish" (Henry IX) to the United Irishmen. This occurred during General Jean Joseph Amable Humbert's landing in County Mayo to support the Irish Rebellion of 1798, with the hope of rallying the Catholic population. However, Wolfe Tone, the Protestant republican leader, ultimately vetoed this scheme.

Final Years and Passing

Henry returned to Frascati in 1803. In September of that year, he assumed the prestigious role of Dean of the College of Cardinals, thereby also becoming the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and Velletri, though he continued to reside in the episcopal palace at Frascati. He passed away there on July 13, 1807, at the age of 82. His death coincided with the 60th anniversary of his appointment as Cardinal Deacon of his titular church and the 46th anniversary of his elevation to the rank of Cardinal Bishop, marking the end of a remarkable life intertwined with both royal lineage and ecclesiastical power.

Personal Life

Historical Speculation

Modern historians have engaged in speculation regarding Henry Benedict Stuart's personal life, particularly concerning his sexual orientation. Some have suggested he may have been homosexual. Contemporary accounts, such as those from Hester Lynch Thrale (1741–1821) and the diplomat and writer Giuseppe Gorani (1740–1819), contribute to this discussion. Gorani, while admitting insufficient evidence to confirm his suspicions definitively, noted the presence of numerous handsome clerics within Henry's palace. The historian Andrew Lang also referenced a comment by Henry's father, James, suggesting that his younger son would never marry, despite various marital arrangements having been considered for him.

Significant Attachments

Gaetano Moroni provides the most extensive account of Henry's deep attachment to his majordomo, Giovanni Lercari (1722–1802), whom Henry was said to have "loved beyond measure." This relationship led to significant tensions with his father, James, who, in 1752, attempted to have Lercari removed from Rome. Henry's strong reaction, including his refusal to return to Rome from Bologna without Lercari, nearly resulted in a public scandal, which was narrowly averted through the intervention of Pope Benedict XIV. Ultimately, it was agreed that Lercari would leave the household, and he later became Archbishop of Genoa. Following James's death in 1766, Henry developed a close relationship with Angelo Cesarini, a nobleman from Perugia. Under Henry's patronage, Cesarini received various honors, became a canon of the cathedral in Frascati, and in 1801, was appointed Bishop of Milevi. Henry died with Cesarini at his side, a testament to their close bond over 32 years. Cesarini was subsequently buried in the church of Santa Maria in Vallicella. These relationships, as noted by historians, may have contained a romantic element.

Legacy

Succession and Royal Bequests

In his will, which he signed as "Henry R" (Rex, or king), Henry Benedict Stuart designated his nearest blood-relative and friend, King Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia, as his successor to all his claimed British rights. Like his successors, Charles Emmanuel neither formally asserted nor renounced these Jacobite claims. A significant act in his will was the bequest of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom to the Prince of Wales, who would later become George IV. This gesture symbolically brought the Jacobite cause to a definitive close, acknowledging the de facto Hanoverian succession while preserving a sense of dynastic continuity.

Final Resting Place

Henry Benedict Stuart, along with his brother, father, and mother, is interred in the crypt of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City. A grand monument dedicated to the Royal Stuarts stands prominently on one of the columns within the basilica itself. This impressive memorial was designed by the renowned sculptor Antonio Canova and was originally commissioned by Angelo Cesarini, the executor of Henry Benedict's estate. Among the notable subscribers who contributed to its creation was George IV, the very recipient of the Stuart Crown Jewels. The monument underwent restoration in the 1940s, funded by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, ensuring its preservation for future generations and serving as a lasting tribute to the exiled Stuart line.

Ecclesiastical Titles

Cardinalatial Appointments

Throughout his extensive ecclesiastical career, Henry Benedict Stuart held a series of significant cardinalatial titles and appointments, reflecting his steady ascent within the Roman Catholic hierarchy. These included:


*   Cardinal Deacon of Santa Maria in Portico (July 13, 1747)
*   Cardinal Priest of Santa Maria in Portico (September 16, 1748)
*   Cardinal Priest of Santi XII Apostoli (December 18, 1752)
*   Cardinal Priest of Santa Maria in Trastevere (February 12, 1759)
*   Cardinal Bishop of Frascati (July 13, 1761)
*   Comendatario of San Lorenzo in Damaso (January 14, 1763)
*   Cardinal Bishop of Ostia e Velletri (September 26, 1803)

Beyond these specific titular churches, he also served as Sub-dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals from March 1774, and ultimately as Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals from September 15, 1803. His influence extended to papal elections, as he participated in the conclaves of 1758, 1769, 1774–75, and 1799–1800.

Arms and Pretensions

During the period when his father and brother asserted their claims to the British throne, Henry Benedict Stuart also claimed a coat of arms. This consisted of the traditional arms of the kingdom, but "differenced" by a *crescent argent*, or a white crescent. This heraldic modification served to distinguish his arms as a junior member of the royal line while still signifying his connection to the royal claims. Despite his deep involvement in the Church, this symbolic assertion of royal lineage underscored his unique dual identity as both a powerful cardinal and a claimant to a distant throne.

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References

Macleod 2000, pp. 371â373.

Lees-Milne 1984, p. 75.

Haggard 1840, p. 151.

Fothergill 1958, pp. 205â206.

Pittock 2006, p. 210.

Aston 2002, p. 220

Piozzi 1942, p. 874â875 (dated 29 March 1794).

Gorani 1793, pp. 100â103.

McLynn 1991, pp. 468â469.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Henry Benedict Stuart Wikipedia page

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The Cardinal Prince: Henry Benedict Stuart's Enduring Legacy

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Introduction 👑

👑 The Last Jacobite Claimant

⛪ A Life in the Papal States

Early Life 👶

🏰 Birth in Roman Exile

🧠 Character and Early Endeavors

Ecclesiastical Career ⛪

📿 Rapid Ascent in the Church

💰 Substantial Revenues and Influence

🏛️ Dean of the College

Later Life 🇫🇷

📉 Financial Hardship and British Aid

diplomatic Shifting Allegiances and Irish Proposal

⚰️ Final Years and Passing

Personal Life 👤

🤔 Historical Speculation

🤝 Significant Attachments

Legacy 📜

👑 Succession and Royal Bequests

🏛️ Final Resting Place

Ecclesiastical Titles 🏅

📜 Cardinalatial Appointments

🛡️ Arms and Pretensions

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

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❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

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📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction

The Last Jacobite Claimant

A Life in the Papal States

Early Life

Birth in Roman Exile

Character and Early Endeavors

Ecclesiastical Career

Rapid Ascent in the Church

Substantial Revenues and Influence

Dean of the College

Later Life

Financial Hardship and British Aid

Shifting Allegiances and Irish Proposal

Final Years and Passing

Personal Life

Historical Speculation

Significant Attachments

Legacy

Succession and Royal Bequests

Final Resting Place

Ecclesiastical Titles

Cardinalatial Appointments

Arms and Pretensions

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice