What was the "Jewish hat" and where was it typically worn?

The Jewish hat, also known by its German name "Judenhut" or Latin name "pileus cornutus," was generally a cone-shaped, pointed hat, often white or yellow. It was worn by Jews in Medieval Europe and also appeared in parts of the Islamic world.

What are the alternative names for the Jewish hat mentioned in the text?

The Jewish hat is also referred to as "Judenhut" in German and "pileus cornutus" in Latin, the latter meaning "horned skullcap."

When and why did the wearing of the Jewish hat become mandatory in some European regions?

The wearing of the Jewish hat was enforced in some parts of Europe following the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215. Its purpose was to distinguish adult male Jews from others when they were outside of a ghetto.

What is the potential origin of the Jewish hat?

The exact origin of the Jewish hat is unclear, but it is suggested that it may have evolved from similar hats worn in pre-Islamic Persia, as a comparable head covering was used by Babylonian Jews.

How does the historical Jewish hat differ from modern distinctive Jewish headwear?

The historical Jewish hat was typically a cone-shaped, pointed hat. Modern distinctive Jewish headwear includes items such as the kippah (skullcap), shtreimel, spodik, kolpik, and kashkets, which are different in style and form.

Describe the evolution of the Jewish hat's shape during the Middle Ages.

The shape of the Jewish hat varied. In the 13th century, it could resemble a soft Phrygian cap or have a stiff, round brim tapering to a point, sometimes called the "oil-can type." By the 14th century, a ball or bobble often appeared at the top, and the tapering end became more stalk-like, with the top becoming flatter or rounded.

What materials might have been used in the construction of the Jewish hat?

Based on artistic representations, the materials used for the Jewish hat are not definitively known but may have included metal, woven plant materials, stiffened textiles, and leather.

What types of headgear began to replace the Jewish hat towards the end of the Middle Ages?

As the Middle Ages concluded, the Jewish hat was gradually replaced by various other headwear styles, including exotic Eastern-style hats, turbans, wide flat hats, and berets. In some instances, these styles were depicted as attempts to represent historical or contemporary Middle Eastern dress.

When and where was the first recorded instance of a "Jewish hat" or "Judenhut"?

The first recorded instance of a "Jewish hat" or "Judenhut" occurred around the 11th century in the Flanders region.

Did European Christians wear similar hats before they were mandated for Jews?

Yes, the text indicates that European Christians wore similar hats before they mandated that Jews wear them, suggesting the style was not initially exclusive to Jews.

What did early medieval references suggest about the clothing of Jews compared to their neighbors?

According to Sara Lipton, early medieval references suggest that Jews dressed no differently from their Gentile neighbors, implying that distinctive clothing mandates came later.

In which European countries is the Jewish hat documented as being worn during the medieval period?

The Jewish hat is documented as being worn in France from the 11th century and in Italy from the 12th century. It is also depicted on the Gniezno Doors, which were likely made in Germany around 1175.

What is the Jewish legal requirement concerning head covering?

Jewish law stipulates that observant Jews should keep their heads covered almost all the time.

How did European Jews initially view the Jewish hat, based on its use in their own cultural artifacts?

The Jewish hat appeared in illustrated Hebrew manuscripts and was later used in Jewish seals and coats of arms. This suggests that European Jews initially regarded it as an element of traditional attire rather than a symbol of imposed discrimination.

How did the perception of the Jewish hat change once its wearing was made obligatory?

Once the Jewish hat was mandated, its perception shifted. It was viewed by Jews in a negative light, contrasting with its earlier acceptance as traditional garb.

What was the stated rationale behind the Fourth Council of the Lateran's ruling on distinguishing dress for Jews and Muslims?

The Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) ruled that Jews and Muslims must be distinguishable by their dress to prevent confusion and, consequently, accidental sexual relations between Christians and non-Christians. The council cited a precept from the Torah (Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:5, 11) as justification.

Did all European monarchs strictly enforce the decrees on distinguishing dress for Jews?

No, not all European medieval monarchs strictly adhered to these papal decrees. For instance, King Andrew II of Hungary ignored papal demands on multiple occasions, which led to his excommunication twice.

In which geographical areas of Europe was the Jewish hat primarily found?

The Jewish hat was predominantly found north of the Alps. It was not commonly found in Spain.

What was the outcome of the Council of Vienne concerning the Jewish hat?

The Council of Vienne, held in 1311-12, confirmed the earlier ruling from the Fourth Council of the Lateran regarding the need for distinguishing dress for Jews.

What specific regulation regarding the Jewish hat was implemented in Vienna in 1267?

In 1267, a local regulation made the wearing of the Jewish hat compulsory in Vienna.

What exception regarding the Jewish hat occurred in Venice in 1528?

In 1528, a doctor named Jacob Mantino received a temporary exemption from wearing the Jewish hat in Venice, following a request from prominent patients. This occurred during a period when Venice had specific clothing regulations for various professions.

What did Pope Paul IV decree regarding the Jewish hat in the Papal States in 1555?

In 1555, Pope Paul IV issued an order mandating that all Jews in the Papal States wear a yellow, peaked hat.

For how long was the Jewish hat compulsory in Lithuania?

The Jewish hat was compulsory in Lithuania for a period of twenty years, beginning in 1567.

What event led to the formal discontinuation of the Jewish hat's use?

The use of the Jewish hat was formally discontinued as a consequence of Jewish Emancipation, although its prevalence had already been declining significantly before that period.

What form of distinguishing mark for Jews proved to be more long-lasting than the Jewish hat?

The yellow badge, which emerged as a distinguishing mark after 1215 and was later reintroduced by the Nazis, was more long-lasting than the Jewish hat.

How did English legislation address distinguishing marks for Jews?

English legislation tended to focus on badges as distinguishing marks for Jews, rather than the pointed hat. An example mentioned is a badge shaped like the Tablets of the Law.

How did varying local regulations regarding dress codes impact Jewish travelers in medieval Europe?

The existence of diverse local regulations for dress codes, particularly in regions like Renaissance Italy and Germany, created challenges for travelers. For instance, a Jewish traveler might be arrested for wearing a hat that was acceptable in their home city but prohibited in the location they were visiting, as seen with Leone Segele in Lodi.

What happened in Rome after Pope Paul IV's death concerning his decree on the yellow hat?

Following Pope Paul IV's death, a statue of him in Rome had a yellow hat placed upon it, symbolizing the yellow hat he had imposed on Jews. Subsequently, the statue was decapitated and thrown into the Tiber River.

How was the Jewish hat commonly used in medieval art to represent Biblical Jews?

In medieval art, the Jewish hat served as a frequent visual cue to identify Jews from Biblical periods. While often associated with negative portrayals in Christian narratives, it was also used more neutrally.

Beyond identifying Biblical Jews, what other symbolic roles did the Jewish hat play in Christian art?

In Christian art, the Jewish hat was sometimes used to differentiate Jews from other groups, such as Egyptians or Philistines. It was also depicted on figures like Saint Joseph and occasionally Jesus, particularly in scenes where their identity was initially obscured, like the Meeting at Emmaus.

Was the depiction of the Jewish hat in Christian art always reflective of actual contemporary Jewish dress?

No, the Jewish hat was often depicted in Christian art even in contexts where it was not commonly worn by Jews at the time. Christian iconographers used it as a recognizable, albeit sometimes arbitrary, sign to signify Jewish identity.

How did the portrayal of the Jewish hat in Hebrew manuscript illuminations differ from its use in Christian art?

Unlike its often symbolic or discriminatory use in Christian art, the Jewish hat was frequently depicted in Hebrew manuscript illuminations, such as Haggadot. For example, figures in the Birds' Head Haggadah are shown wearing the hat during the Passover Seder.

How could the Jewish hat in Christian art convey a negative attitude towards the wearer?

In Christian art, the Jewish hat could signify negative connotations or infidelity. It was sometimes worn by characters depicted as being on the "wrong side" of a religious or theological dispute, or in scenes representing conversion, to symbolize recalcitrant Jewishness.

What is the significance of the "Judenkopf Groschen" coin?

The "Judenkopf Groschen" was a silver coin minted by William III of Meissen. Its obverse featured a man wearing a Judenhut, which was interpreted by the populace as a representation of a typical Jew.

What happened to the iconography of the pointed hat after the Black Death and subsequent Jewish expulsions?

Following the Black Death and the expulsion of Jews from many parts of German-speaking Europe, the pointed hat's iconography expanded. It began to be used to represent other marginalized or non-Christian figures, including criminals, pagans, sorcerers, and even dwarfs.

Can an example be provided of the pointed hat being used for non-Jewish figures in later periods?

Yes, an example is found in Hungarian law from 1421, which stipulated that individuals convicted of sorcery were required to wear a Jewish hat as a form of public humiliation.

What were the general dress regulations for dhimmis (non-Muslims) in the Islamic world?

In the Islamic world, rulers often imposed regulations requiring dhimmis to wear distinctive garments, including headgear, to ensure they were clearly distinguishable from Muslims in public. The specific requirements varied over time and region.

What specific clothing regulations did Caliph al-Mutawakkil impose in 850?

In 850, the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil mandated that Christians and Jews wear a sash known as a zunnar and a distinctive shawl or headscarf called a taylasin. He also required them to wear small bells when entering public baths.

What extreme clothing decrees were issued by Caliph Al-Hakim in the 11th century?

During the 11th century, the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim issued severe decrees, ordering Christians to wear wooden crosses approximately half a meter long and Jews to wear wooden calves around their necks.

What were some of the clothing regulations imposed on Jews in the Maghreb under the Almohads?

Under the Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf in the late 12th century, Jews in the Maghreb were required to wear dark blue garments with long sleeves and saddle-shaped caps. Later, his grandson Abdallah al-Adil modified this requirement to yellow garments and turbans.

What were some notable clothing regulations imposed by Ottoman sultans on non-Muslims?

Ottoman sultans implemented various clothing regulations for non-Muslims. For instance, Murad III issued a firman in 1577 restricting the wearing of certain garments and turbans by Jews and Christians. Subsequent decrees specified colors for hats and shoes, and mandated distinctive attire for dhimmis.

Were discriminatory clothing laws consistently enforced across all Ottoman provinces?

No, these discriminatory clothing laws were not uniformly enforced. In Ottoman provinces where Christians constituted the majority population, such as Greece and the Balkan regions, these regulations were typically not applied.

What is depicted on the coat of arms of Judenburg, Austria?

The coat of arms of Judenburg, Austria, includes imagery related to the Jewish hat, often referred to as a Judenhut.

How is the Jewish hat represented in Hieronymus Bosch's "Adoration of the Magi"?

In Hieronymus Bosch's painting "Adoration of the Magi," a figure identified as the Jewish "false Messiah" is depicted wearing a pointed cap in the doorway of the stable, casting a shadow over the infant Christ.

What is the "Judenkopf Groschen"?

The "Judenkopf Groschen" was a silver coin minted by William III, Landgrave of Thuringia. The coin's obverse displays a man wearing a Judenhut, which was commonly understood by the public to represent a Jew.

What is the significance of the hat worn by Joachim in the twelfth-century German depiction of the Nativity of Mary?

In a twelfth-century German artwork illustrating the Nativity of Mary, the figure of Joachim, Mary's father, is depicted wearing the Jewish hat.

What is the purpose of the "See also" section in the article?

The "See also" section provides a list of related topics and concepts that may be of interest to the reader, such as conical hats, dhimmi laws, ghettos, and the yellow badge, offering further avenues for exploration.

What function do the "Notes" and "Bibliography" sections serve?

The "Notes" section contains citations that reference the specific sources and page numbers for the information presented in the article. The "Bibliography" section lists the primary works consulted, serving as a resource for readers seeking more in-depth information.

What kind of external resources are typically found in the "External links" section?

The "External links" section provides direct links to related content outside of the Wikipedia article itself. This can include features from other media organizations like PBS, specialized websites with relevant images, or curated collections of media such as Wikimedia Commons.

Jewish Hat Wiki: Crowning Heritage: The Jewish Hat in History

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The Jewish Hat: An Overview

Defining the Judenhut

The Jewish hat, known variously as the Jewish cap, *Judenhut* (German), or Latin *pileus cornutus* ("horned skullcap"), was predominantly a cone-shaped, pointed hat, often rendered in white or yellow. It was a common form of headwear for Jews throughout Medieval Europe. While initially adopted voluntarily, its wearing was later mandated in certain European regions following the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215, requiring adult Jewish males to wear it when outside of a ghetto to ensure clear distinction from the general populace. Its origins may trace back to pre-Islamic Persia, with similar headwear observed among Babylonian Jews, much like the Phrygian cap it often resembled.

Historical Trajectory

Origins and Evolution

The precise origins of the Jewish hat are not definitively established, though scholarly hypotheses suggest a lineage possibly evolving from late Roman styles or even ancient Persian clergy attire. Early visual evidence appears in the Mosan Stavelot Bible around 1097. The earliest recorded instance of the "Jewish hat" or "Judenhut" dates to the 11th century in Flanders. Initially, Jewish attire did not significantly differ from that of their Christian neighbors, according to historical analysis. The hat's adoption became more widespread and eventually enforced, transforming it from a potential element of traditional garb into a symbol of imposed distinction and, at times, discrimination.

Early Mentions: Evidence suggests roots in late Roman and Persian styles, with appearances in the Mosan Stavelot Bible (c. 1097).
11th Century: First recorded instances in Flanders.
Medieval Spread: Worn in France from the 11th century and Italy from the 12th century. Depicted on the Gniezno Doors (Germany, c. 1175).
Enforcement: Mandated by the Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) to distinguish Jews from Christians.
Later Mandates: Reaffirmed by the Council of Vienne (1311-12), made compulsory in Vienna (1267), and enforced with specific colors (e.g., yellow) in the Papal States (1555) and Lithuania (1567-1587).
Decline: Usage began to decline significantly after 1500, gradually replaced by other forms of identification, and largely discontinued with Jewish Emancipation.

Form and Materiality

Varied Silhouettes

The shape of the Jewish hat exhibited considerable variability throughout its history. Early representations, particularly from the 13th century, often depict a soft Phrygian cap. More commonly, especially in the earlier periods, the hat featured a circular, seemingly stiff brim, with a tapering top that concluded in a point, a style sometimes referred to as the "oil-can type." Smaller versions that perched atop the head, occasionally adorned with a ring around the crown, were also observed. By the 14th century, stylistic changes included the addition of a bobble or ball at the apex, a more stalk-like tapering end of constant width, and a flatter or rounded crown. Artistic depictions suggest materials could have included stiffened textiles, leather, and possibly even woven plant materials, though definitive evidence remains elusive.

European Context and Regulation

Mandates and Distinctions

In Medieval Europe, the Jewish hat served as a visual marker of identity, particularly after the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 mandated distinctive dress for Jews and Muslims to prevent intermingling with Christians. While not universally enforced by all monarchs, local rulers frequently implemented regulations. The hat was most prevalent north of the Alps, with fewer examples found in Spain. Its compulsory wearing was reinforced by synods and papal decrees, such as those in Breslau (1267) and Vienna (1267). Later regulations, like Pope Paul IV's 1555 edict requiring a yellow, peaked hat in the Papal States, and similar mandates in Lithuania (1567-1587), underscore its role as a tool of social control and segregation. As Jewish emancipation progressed, the hat's prominence waned, often being superseded by other forms of identification.

Regulated Dress in the Islamic World

Dhimmi Attire

Across the Islamic world, rulers often implemented regulations requiring non-Muslims (*dhimmis*) to wear distinctive garments to differentiate them from Muslims. While headwear was part of these regulations, it was often complemented by other items like belts (*zunnar*) or specific sashes and shawls (*taylasin*). Historical evidence suggests that the Abbasid caliphs pioneered these practices. Rulers like Al-Mutawakkil (c. 850) mandated specific head coverings, while others, such as Al-Hakim, imposed symbolic objects. Later rulers, including those in the Almohad dynasty and the Ottoman Empire, continued to issue and enforce decrees regarding dhimmi clothing, often specifying colors and styles for hats and robes, though the degree of enforcement varied significantly across regions and time periods.

Representation in Art

Iconography and Symbolism

The Jewish hat frequently appears in medieval art, serving as a visual signifier for Jewish figures, often from biblical periods. Christian iconographers utilized it as an external marker, sometimes associating it with unfavorable portrayals or specific narratives, such as the expulsion of money-changers or figures representing infidelity. However, its use was not exclusively negative; it also appeared on figures like Saint Joseph and even Jesus in certain contexts, signifying their Jewish identity. Notably, the hat also features prominently in Hebrew manuscript illuminations, such as Haggadot, indicating its integration into Jewish cultural representation. The depiction of the hat in art sometimes diverged from its real-world appearance, often exaggerated in pointiness, serving the symbolic needs of the artist.

Iconographic Transfer

From Jewish Symbol to Outcast Marker

Following events like the Black Death in 1349 and subsequent expulsions of Jewish communities from parts of Europe, the visual symbolism of the pointed hat underwent a transformation. In iconography, it began to be applied not only to Jews but also to other marginalized or negatively perceived groups. This included criminals, pagans, sorcerers, and even dwarfs. For instance, laws in Hungary in 1421 mandated that individuals convicted of sorcery wear a Jewish hat as a form of public shaming, demonstrating the hat's transfer from a specific ethnic marker to a broader signifier of social deviance or non-conformity.

Visual Compendium

Artistic Depictions

Medieval art provides numerous visual records of the Jewish hat, illustrating its varied forms and contexts. These depictions range from biblical scenes to contemporary European life and religious manuscripts.

👑 Saint Helena Finding the True Cross, Weissenau Abbey, Germany, c. 1170.

📜 Moses and the Bronze Serpent, German, c. 1225–1230.

💎 Daniel in stained glass, Augsburg, Germany, first half of twelfth century.

👤 German Jews of the twelfth century. From Herrad von Landsberg, Hortus deliciarum.

🔥 Burning and killing of Jews by Knight Volkmar during the First Crusade (Prague).

😇 Twelfth-century German Nativity of Mary with Mary's father Joachim wearing the hat.

🏛️ Coat of arms of Judenburg, Austria.

⚔️ Valdemar Atterdag holding Visby to ransom, 1361, by Carl Gustaf Hellqvist, featuring a Jewish merchant.

✨ Adoration of the Magi by Hieronymus Bosch, showing a figure with a pointed cap.

💰 Judenkopf Groschen coin.

Scholarly Notes

Reference Details

For example as worn by the Klosterneuburg Altar figures of 1181.
Lipton 1999, p. 16.
Occasionally small straight "stalks" are seen earlier, e.g. Schreckenberg:77, illus 4, of c. 1170.
Silverman 2013, p. 55-56.
Silverman 2013, p. 55–57.
Lipton, Sara (2014). Dark mirror: the medieval origins of anti-Jewish iconography. Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt and Company. p. 15.
Although this may not yet have acquired the force of law at this period. See Roth op cit.
Silverman 2013, p. 56.
PiponnierMane 1997, p. 138.
Silverman 2013, p. 57.
Schreckenberg 1996, p. 15.
Seals from Norman Roth, op cit.
"Medieval Jewish History: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Norman Roth, Routledge". Archived from the original on February 25, 2008.
Fehér, J. (1967). Magyar Középkori Inkvizicio. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Transilvania.
"Mantino, Jacob ben Samuel". Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
Papal Bull Cum nimis absurdum. Lithuania, JE: "Yellow badge".
Schreckenberg 1996, p. 288-296.
For example in the enigmatic illustrations to the Golden Haggadah of Darmstadt, of about 1300. See sacrifice illustration below also.
Cassen, Flora (2019-10-08), "Jewish Travelers in Early Modern Italy: Visible and Invisible Resistance to the Jewish Badge", Dress and Cultural Difference in Early Modern Europe, De Gruyter Oldenbourg, pp. 73–89, doi:10.1515/9783110635942-005, ISBN 978-3-11-063594-2, retrieved 2024-10-05
Stow, Kenneth (2001). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571. Volume IV: The Sixteenth Century. American Philosophical Society. p. 719.
Schreckenberg: 125–196. A twelfth-century English example is in the Getty Museum Archived 2010-06-07 at the Wayback Machine.
Lipton 1999, p. 16-19.
Schapiro, Meyer (1980). Selected papers. G. Braziller. pp. 380–386.
Lipton 1999, p. 16-17.
Lipton 1999, p. 18 the image is on folio 25c of Vienna ONB Codex 1179 Bible moralisée.
Lipton 1999, p. 19.
ONB Codex 1179, f. 181a
Saurma no. 4386
Lubrich, Naomi. "From Judenhut to Zauberhut: A Jewish Sign Proliferates", in: Asdiwal, 10, 2015, 136–162.
Lubrich, Naomi. "The Wandering Hat: Iterations of the Medieval Jewish Hat", in: Jewish History, 29 (2015), 203–244. doi:10.1007/s10835-015-9250-5. ISSN 0334-701X. JSTOR 24709777.
Bat Ye'or (2002). Islam and Dhimmitude. Where Civilizations Collide. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press/Associated University Presses. p. 91
"Medieval Jewish History: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Norman Roth, Routledge". Archived from the original on October 24, 2008.
Bat Ye’or (2002), pp. 91–96

Bibliography

Key Sources

Parts of this article are translated from de:Judenhut of 13 July 2005
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Judenhut". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
Lipton, Sara (1999). Images of intolerance: the representation of Jews and Judaism in the Bible moralisée. University of California Press.
Lubrich, Naomi (2015). "The Wandering Hat: Iterations of the Medieval Jewish Pointed Cap". Jewish History. 29 (3/4): 203–244.
Lubrich, Naomi, “From Judenhut to Zauberhut: A Jewish Sign Proliferates”, in: Asdiwal, 10, 2015, 136–162
Piponnier, Françoise; Mane, Perrine (1997). Dress in the Middle Ages. Yale University Press.
Roth, Norman, "Was There a "Jewish Hat"?"
Schreckenberg, Heinz (1996). The Jews in Christian art: an illustrated history. Continuum.
Silverman, Eric (2013-01-01). A Cultural History of Jewish Dress. A&C Black.
Straus, Raphael (1942). "The "Jewish Hat" as an Aspect of Social History". Jewish Social Studies. 4 (1): 59–72.

Further Exploration

External Resources

Wikimedia Commons: Jewish hat media (opens in new tab)
PBS feature on Jewish headwear (opens in new tab)
German website with illustrations (opens in new tab)

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References

For example as worn by the Old Testament figures on the Klosterneuburg Altar of 1181

Occasionally small straight "stalks" are seen earlier, e.g. Schreckenberg:77, illus 4, of c. 1170

Papal Bull Cum nimis absurdum. Lithuania, JE: "Yellow badge".

For example in the enigmatic illustrations to the Golden Haggadah of Darmstadt, of about 1300. See sacrifice illustration below also.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Jewish hat Wikipedia page

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Crowning Heritage: The Jewish Hat in History

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The Jewish Hat: An Overview ℹ️

🎩 Defining the Judenhut

Historical Trajectory 📜

⏳ Origins and Evolution

Form and Materiality 📐

🧵 Varied Silhouettes

European Context and Regulation 🌍

⚖️ Mandates and Distinctions

Regulated Dress in the Islamic World 🕌

📜 Dhimmi Attire

Representation in Art 🎨

🖼️ Iconography and Symbolism

Iconographic Transfer ➡️

🔄 From Jewish Symbol to Outcast Marker

Visual Compendium 🖼️

🖼️ Artistic Depictions

Scholarly Notes 📝

📌 Reference Details

Bibliography 📚

📖 Key Sources

Further Exploration 🔗

🌐 External Resources

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

The Jewish Hat: An Overview

Defining the Judenhut

Historical Trajectory

Origins and Evolution

Form and Materiality

Varied Silhouettes

European Context and Regulation

Mandates and Distinctions

Regulated Dress in the Islamic World

Dhimmi Attire

Representation in Art

Iconography and Symbolism

Iconographic Transfer

From Jewish Symbol to Outcast Marker

Visual Compendium

Artistic Depictions

Scholarly Notes

Reference Details

Bibliography

Key Sources

Further Exploration

External Resources

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice