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Karma: The Intricate Dance of Intent and Consequence

An academic exploration into the ancient Indian principle of action, intent, and their profound effects across existence.

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What is Karma?

Action, Intent, and Effect

Derived from the Sanskrit word for 'action,' 'work,' or 'deed,' Karma represents a fundamental ancient Indian concept encompassing both an individual's volitional actions and their subsequent effects or consequences.[1] More precisely, in Indian religions, it articulates a principle of causality where an individual's intentions and actions serve as the 'cause,' profoundly influencing their future 'effect.'[2] Positive intentions and virtuous deeds are understood to generate beneficial karma, leading to more favorable circumstances or happier rebirths, while malevolent intentions and harmful actions contribute to negative karma, potentially resulting in adverse outcomes or less desirable rebirths. It is important to note, however, that some scriptural interpretations do not explicitly link karma with rebirth.[3][4]

The Cycle of Existence

The concept of karma is intricately connected with the doctrine of rebirth, or saṃsāra, across many Indian religious traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and also extends to Taoism.[7][8] In these frameworks, the karma accumulated in one's present life is believed to shape not only future experiences within the current existence but also the fundamental nature and quality of subsequent lives within the continuous cycle of reincarnation.[9][10] Cultural motifs such as the endless knot, common in Asian art, often symbolize this interlinking of cause and effect and the eternal karmic cycle.

Beyond Fate: Modern Interpretations

Karma is frequently misconstrued as an immutable force of fate, destiny, or predetermination. However, in Sanskrit, specific terminology like Prarabdha exists for such concepts, distinguishing them from karma, which emphasizes agency.[6] Contemporary interpretations, particularly within New Age philosophies, often view karma as a universal law of cause and effect that ensures cosmic equilibrium. While acknowledging its balancing function, these perspectives frequently de-emphasize its role as a system of punitive enforcement for past transgressions, focusing instead on personal responsibility and growth.[11]

Core Principles

Intent and Action

The term karma (Sanskrit: कर्म; Pali: kamma) refers both to the 'deed, work, action, act' that is executed and to the 'object, intent' behind it.[3] Scholar Wilhelm Halbfass elucidates this by contrasting karma with kriya: while kriya denotes the activity itself, including the effort involved, karma signifies the executed action as a consequence of that activity, and crucially, the intention of the actor. Thus, both good actions and good intentions generate positive karma, whereas negative actions and malevolent intentions produce adverse karma.[3] This emphasis on intent is a cornerstone of karmic theory.

Causality and Consequences

A central tenet across all schools of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain thought is the principle of causality inherent in karma.[17][21] As articulated in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (4.4.5–6), "as a man is like this or like that, according as he acts and according as he behaves, so will he be; a man of good acts will become good, a man of bad acts, bad."[22] This theory posits that an individual's executed actions and intentions directly influence their life. Actions performed without malicious intent, such as those arising without covetousness in Buddhism, are often considered to have a neutral or non-existent karmic impact.[25] Furthermore, the principle dictates that similar deeds yield similar effects, meaning good karma produces positive outcomes, and bad karma results in negative ones, affecting one's happiness and unhappiness, potentially over extended periods or even future lives.[21][26]

Phala and Samskara

The consequences of karma manifest in two primary forms: phala and samskara. Phala, literally meaning 'fruit' or 'result,' refers to the observable or unobservable effects that typically occur immediately or within the current lifetime.[21] In contrast, samskara (Sanskrit: संस्कार) denotes an invisible, transformative effect produced within the actor due to their karma. These internal imprints reshape the individual, influencing their capacity for happiness or unhappiness in both their current and future existences. Karmic theory is frequently expounded through the lens of samskaras, highlighting the profound internal changes wrought by one's actions and intentions.[21][27]

Psychological Dimensions

Scholars like Karl Potter and Harold Coward propose that the karmic principle can also be understood through a psychological and habitual lens.[17][27] Karma is seen as seeding habits (vāsanā), which in turn shape an individual's character. It also influences self-perception, thereby affecting how one experiences life events. Both habits and self-perception are critical determinants of one's life trajectory. Overcoming detrimental habits requires conscious karmic effort, underscoring the dynamic interplay between one's psyche, actions, and the unfolding of life. This perspective draws a parallel between karma and the development of a person's 'character,' both being assessments shaped by habitual thought and action.[10]

Historical Development

Vedic Roots and Early Meanings

The Vedic Sanskrit term kárman- (nominative kárma) originally signified 'work' or 'deed,' frequently appearing in the context of Srauta rituals.[44] The Rigveda mentions the word approximately 40 times.[44] Early Vedic literature also extended the concept beyond rituals, incorporating terms for sins (e.g., āgas, pāpa) and virtues (e.g., sukṛta, puṇya), with karman serving as a neutral term for 'action.' The Satapatha Brahmana, for instance, highlights sacrifice as the "greatest" work and links the agnicayana sacrifice to the potential for immortality (amara).[44]

Moral Significance in Ancient Texts

Pre-Upanishadic texts reveal that Vedic words for "action" and "merit" carried significant moral weight, not solely confined to ritualistic practices. The term karman broadly denoted any action, positive or negative, irrespective of religious ceremonies. Similarly, sukṛta (and later puṇya) referred to any form of "merit," whether ethical or ritualistic, while terms like pāpa consistently represented morally wrong actions.[46] The Shatapatha Brahmana 11.2.7.33 states, "Whatever good deed man does that is inside the Vedi; and whatever evil he does that is outside the Vedi," indicating an early evaluation of virtuous and sinful actions. The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana 2.13.5 further warns against evil, stating, "Although he thinks that he does it secretly, as it were, still it makes it manifest."

Upanishadic Doctrine and Inter-Traditional Exchange

The earliest explicit discussions of the karma doctrine are found in the Upanishads, where it emerges within the discourse on the individual's fate post-mortem.[9][44] For example, the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3.2.13 clearly articulates the causality and ethicization: "Truly, one becomes good through good deeds, and evil through evil deeds."[48][49] While some scholars suggest the samsara and karma doctrines may have originated in non-Vedic "shramana" traditions preceding Buddhism and Jainism,[50] others argue for a flow of complex ideas from Vedic thinkers to these traditions.[16][51] It is widely accepted that these concepts likely co-developed through mutual influences.[52] Philosophical debates, such as the controversial idea of karma transfer (accepted by some Buddhists but rejected by Hindus and Jains), highlight the distinct evolutions within these traditions.[53]>[55]

Karma in Hinduism

Evolution and Epic Narratives

The concept of karma within Hinduism has undergone significant development and evolution over many centuries. Early Upanishads grappled with existential questions regarding human birth and post-mortem existence. Initial theories, such as pancagni vidya (the five fire doctrine), pitryana (the cyclic path of fathers), and devayana (the cycle-transcending path of the gods), emerged to address these inquiries.[57] These early teachings suggested that individuals pursuing material gains through superficial rituals would re-enter the cycle of rebirth, while those who renounced such pursuits for spiritual knowledge would ascend to a higher path, thereby breaking the cycle.[58] The great Hindu Epics, particularly the Mahabharata, played a crucial role in disseminating the ideas of causality and the essential elements of karma theory through accessible folk stories. For instance, it states, "As a man himself sows, so he himself reaps; no man inherits the good or evil act of another man. The fruit is of the same quality as the action."[59]

Free Will and Predetermination

The Mahabharata extensively debates the interplay between destiny and human effort. In the Anushasana Parva, Yudhishthira questions Bhishma on whether life's course is predetermined or shaped by human endeavor.[60] Bhishma's response posits that the future is a complex function of both current human effort, stemming from free will, and past human actions that establish the prevailing circumstances.[61] The Epic consistently reiterates key postulates of karma theory: that intent and action have consequences, that karma persists, and that all experiences, positive or negative, arise from effort and intent. A notable verse declares, "Happiness comes due to good actions, suffering results from evil actions, by actions, all things are obtained, by inaction, nothing whatsoever is enjoyed."[63]>[64]

Diverse Philosophical Schools

Within Hinduism, various philosophical schools have developed distinct interpretations of karma, ranging from highly deterministic views to those that strongly emphasize free will and moral agency.[14] Professor Wilhelm Halbfass highlights some of these diverse perspectives:[3]>

  • Nyaya: Considers karma and rebirth central, with some scholars arguing that the doctrine implies the existence of God.
  • Vaisesika: Places less emphasis on karma from past lives.
  • Samkhya: Views karma as secondary to prakrti (primordial matter).
  • Mimamsa: Assigns a negligible role to past karma and largely disregards samsara and moksa.
  • Yoga: While acknowledging past karma, prioritizes current life's behavior and psychology as the primary drivers of consequences and entanglements.
  • Vedanta (including Advaita): Accepts karma but posits that God (Isvara) is the dispenser of its fruits (phala), as defended in the Brahmasutras.[68]>[69]

Conversely, the non-Vedic Charvaka (Lokayata) school, a materialist philosophy, entirely rejected the theory of karma-rebirth and the existence of God, asserting that causality arises solely from the inherent nature and interactions of things and people.[70]>[71]

Karma in Buddhism

Intentional Action and Rebirth

In Buddhism, karma and karmaphala (the 'fruit' or 'result' of karma) are foundational concepts that elucidate how intentional actions perpetuate the cycle of rebirth, or samsara.[72]>[73] The Buddhist path, notably the Noble Eightfold Path, is presented as the means to transcend this cycle.[74]>[75] Karma, in this tradition, specifically refers to actions driven by intention (cetanā), whether expressed through body, speech, or mind, which invariably lead to future consequences.[88]>[89]>[84] The Nibbedhika Sutta (Anguttara Nikaya 6.63) famously states, "Intention (cetana) I tell you, is kamma. Intending, one does kamma by way of body, speech, & intellect."[93]

Impermanence and Non-Determinism

The reconciliation of intentional actions leading to rebirth with the doctrines of impermanence (anicca) and no-self (anatta) constitutes a significant philosophical inquiry within Buddhist traditions, with various solutions proposed.[95]>[76] Early Buddhism primarily attributed rebirth to craving or ignorance, with the karma doctrine potentially being secondary to its soteriology.[77]>[78]>[79]>[80]>[81] Unlike the strictly deterministic view found in Jainism, Buddha's teaching on karma is not rigidly mechanical. It incorporates circumstantial factors, known as Niyamas, making it a flexible, fluid, and dynamic process.[96]>[97]>[98] The karmic effect of an action is not solely determined by the deed itself but also by the nature of the individual performing it and the specific circumstances surrounding its commission.[97]>[99]

Natural Law and Incomprehensibility

In Buddhism, karmaphala is understood as the outcome of a natural process of cause and effect, rather than a judgment imposed by a deity or supernatural entity.[note 9] The profound significance of the karma doctrine lies in its emphasis on the urgency of halting the entire cycle of suffering.[101]>[102] However, the Acintita Sutta cautions that "the results of karma" are among the four incomprehensible subjects (acinteyya), meaning they transcend conceptualization and cannot be fully grasped through logical thought or reason.[103]>[104] Nichiren Buddhism offers a unique perspective, teaching that through faith and practice, individuals can transform adverse karma—negative causes from the past leading to present and future negative results—into positive causes for future benefits.[108]

Karma in Jainism

Karmic Dirt: Subtle Matter

In Jainism, the concept of karma diverges significantly from its common understanding in Hindu philosophy and Western thought.[109] Jain philosophy fundamentally distinguishes between the body (matter) and the soul (pure consciousness).[110] Here, karma is conceptualized as "karmic dirt," comprising extremely subtle particles of matter that permeate the entire universe.[111] These karmic particles are drawn to a soul's karmic field through vibrations generated by mental, verbal, and physical activities, as well as various mental dispositions. Thus, karmas are understood as subtle matter enveloping the consciousness of a soul. The interaction between these two components—consciousness and karma—gives rise to our lived experience.

The Seven Tattvas and Self-Purification

Jain texts delineate seven tattvas (truths or fundamentals) that constitute reality:[112]>

  1. Jīva: The soul, characterized by consciousness.
  2. Ajīva: The non-soul.
  3. Āsrava: The inflow of auspicious and evil karmic matter into the soul.
  4. Bandha: The mutual intermingling of the soul and karmas.
  5. Samvara: The obstruction of further karmic matter inflow.
  6. Nirjara: The gradual dissociation or shedding of karmic matter from the soul.
  7. Mokṣha: The complete annihilation of all karmic matter bound to a soul, leading to liberation.

Padmanabh Jaini emphasizes that Jainism uniquely stresses reaping only one's own karma, a principle maintained rigorously despite societal pressures. Unlike some Hindu or Buddhist traditions that developed practices like divine intervention or merit transfer, Jains have steadfastly resisted such ideas.[113] The soul is likened to impure gold, inherently mixed with impurities, which can be purified through conscious effort and proper refining methodologies.[114]>[115] Karma acts as an efficient cause (nimitta), while the soul itself is considered the material cause (upadana).[116]

Eight Types of Karma

Jain philosophy categorizes karma into eight distinct types, each attaching the soul to Samsara (the cycle of birth and death):[119]>[120]>

  1. Jnanavarniya (Knowledge-Obstructing): Obscures the soul's innate quality of knowledge, preventing full comprehension.
  2. Darshanavarniya (Perception-Obstructing): Hinders the soul's essential quality of perception, affecting visual, non-visual, clairvoyant, and omniscient perception, and inducing various states of sleep.
  3. Vedaniya (Sensation-Producing): Causes experiences of pleasure and pain, disturbing the soul's inherent bliss.
  4. Mohniya (Deluding): Creates delusion, attracting the soul to favorable objects and repelling it from unfavorable ones, thus obstructing pure happiness.
  5. Ayu (Lifespan-Determining): Traps the soul within a specific life or birth, akin to physical chains.
  6. Nama (Body-Producing): Determines the type of body a soul inhabits, based on various attributes.
  7. Gotra (Status-Determining): Bestows low or high societal status, creating social inequalities.
  8. Antaraya (Power-Obstructing): Prevents the soul from utilizing its innate power for acts of charity, profit, enjoyment, repeated enjoyment, and willpower.

Jainism emphasizes that karma operates as a self-sustaining natural law, requiring no external divine entity. Even thoughts can attract karmic matter, highlighting the importance of Right Faith, Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct (Ratnatraya). Liberation (Mokṣha) is achieved through the complete annihilation of karmas, a process accessible to all souls through individual effort.[117]>[118]

Karma in Other Traditions

Sikhism: Sowing and Reaping

In Sikhism, all living beings are understood to exist under the influence of the three qualities of maya, which bind the soul to the physical realm. Within this framework, human activities are termed karma, governed by the principle that actions yield results for the individual performing them.[121] Life is metaphorically described as a field where karma is sown, and individuals harvest precisely what they plant—no more, no less. This infallible law holds everyone accountable for their present and future state. Based on the cumulative effect of past karma, some individuals feel a closer connection to the Pure Being in their current life, while others experience separation. Sikh scriptures, particularly the Gurbani (Sri Guru Granth Sahib), affirm the doctrines of karma and reincarnation as inherent aspects of nature.[121]>

Falun Gong: Purging Negative Karma

Falun Gong presents a distinct definition of "karma," differentiating it from the Buddhist notion of a balanced system of reward and punishment. Here, karma is exclusively understood as a negative term, representing the source of all suffering, akin to what Buddhism might term 'bad karma.' The concept of 'virtue' (de) is reserved for positive karmic accumulation.[123] According to Li Hongzhi, the founder of Falun Gong, karma is a black, negative substance accumulated across lifetimes through harmful deeds and thoughts, trapping the spirit in the cycle of rebirth (samsara).[124]>[125] This accumulation is seen as the primary cause of suffering and the ultimate impediment to understanding universal truth and achieving enlightenment. The path to liberation involves purging this karma through cultivation practices.[125] Li suggests that human life's purpose is to awaken and return to higher dimensions, with failure leading to continued reincarnation until karma is eliminated or the individual is destroyed.[127] This perspective also informs the understanding of illness, where suffering is seen as a means to work off karma, though practitioners retain individual choice regarding medical treatment.[128]>[129]

Taoism: Divine Tracking and Ritual Alleviation

Karma is a significant concept in Taoism, where every deed is meticulously tracked by deities and spirits, ensuring that appropriate rewards or retributions follow, much like a shadow follows a person.[8] The Taoist doctrine of karma evolved through three distinct stages:[131]>

  1. Causality: Initially, a direct link between actions and consequences was established, with supernatural beings overseeing karmic accounts and determining fate (ming).
  2. Transferability: Influenced by Chinese Buddhism, the concept expanded to include the transfer or inheritance of karmic fate from ancestors to one's current life.
  3. Rebirth: The idea of rebirth based on karma was introduced, allowing for reincarnation as another human or animal. This stage also saw the encouragement of rituals, repentance, and offerings at Taoist temples as means to alleviate karmic burdens.[131]>[132]

Shinto: Musubi and Life Affirmation

In Shinto, karma is interpreted through the concept of musubi (産霊), which signifies a means of enriching, empowering, and affirming life.[133] Musubi holds fundamental significance in the Shinto worldview, as creative development forms its very foundation.[134] Many Shinto deities are associated with musubi, with the term often incorporated into their names, reflecting the deep connection between divine creative power and the unfolding of life's experiences.

Philosophical Debates

Free Will and Destiny

A persistent controversy surrounding the karma doctrine concerns its relationship with free will and destiny, often termed the "moral agency problem."[135] This debate is not unique to karmic traditions, finding parallels in monotheistic religions.[136] The core issues include:

  1. Can harmful actions be excused as products of past karma, negating free will and moral responsibility?
  2. Should victims of injustice blame their own past karma, or seek justice against the moral agent responsible?
  3. Does the karma doctrine undermine the incentive for moral education if all suffering is predetermined by past lives?[137]

Responses vary across Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain schools. Many argue that karma encompasses both action and intent, meaning new karma is continuously created by intentional acts, holding individuals morally accountable. They also assert that life forms are not merely recipients of karma but also agents in its initiation and delivery to others. Furthermore, karma is understood to explain certain evils (moral) but not all (natural).[138]>[139] Schools emphasizing the primacy of rebirth often maintain that free will (cetanā) and karma can coexist, though this remains a subject of scholarly debate.[135]>[139]

Psychological Indeterminacy

Another challenge to karmic theory is its psychological indeterminacy, as suggested by Obeyesekere (1968).[140] If individuals cannot know their past karma, and if past karma dictates future outcomes, it creates ambiguity regarding how one can actively shape their future, enhance happiness, or alleviate suffering. For instance, if one experiences sickness or professional failure, it becomes unclear whether these are consequences of past karma or attributable to remediable causes. This issue, also present in religions where divine influence on human events is posited, is addressed by schools emphasizing rebirth with arguments similar to those used for the free will problem.[139]>

Transferability of Karma

The concept of transferring karmic merit or demerit from one person to another is a contentious issue, particularly within certain Buddhist schools.[39]>[141] This practice, if possible, raises profound ethical questions akin to substitutionary atonement, potentially undermining the fundamental link between a moral agent's actions and their consequences. While proponents in some Buddhist traditions argue that merit transfer encourages religious giving and does not facilitate the transfer of negative karma, other schools, including Yoga and Advaita Vedanta in Hinduism, and Jainism, firmly assert that karma cannot be transferred.[16]>[18]>[142]

The Problem of Evil

The problem of evil, a significant theological challenge in monotheistic religions concerning the existence of suffering in a world governed by an omnibenevolent, omniscient, and omnipotent God, has also been extensively debated within Eastern traditions.[143]>[144] Ancient Indian texts, such as the Uttara Mīmāṃsā Sutras and arguments by Adi Sankara and Ramanuja, have explored this dilemma.[145]>[146]>[147]>[148]>[149] The Mahabharata, for instance, considers three theories for the existence of good and evil: divine ordination, karma, and chance events (yadrccha). It suggests suffering arises from an interplay of these factors, though it offers no definitive resolution.[150]>[151]>[152]>[153]>[154] Many nontheistic Indian traditions, and some theistic ones, do not define their deities in the same omnibenevolent, omniscient, and omnipotent terms as Western monotheism, thus framing the problem of theodicy differently.[149]>[155]>[156]>[157] Instead, they often prioritize the karma principle as an explanation for innate justice, focusing on human agency.[158]

Comparable Concepts

Christianity: Sin and Reaping

Western culture, significantly shaped by Christianity, harbors notions akin to karma, encapsulated in phrases like "what goes around comes around."[7] Mary Jo Meadow suggests that karma is analogous to "Christian notions of sin and its effects," viewing the Christian teaching of a Last Judgment based on one's charity as a form of karmic principle.[164] Biblical teachings such as "one reaps what one sows" (Galatians 6:7) and "live by the sword, die by the sword" (Matthew 26:52) further illustrate this parallel.[165] However, most scholars distinguish the Last Judgment from karma, with the former being a singular, end-of-life event, while karma is an ongoing, daily process.[166]

Judaism: Measure for Measure

In Judaism, the concept of midah k'neged midah, often translated as "measure for measure," presents a parallel to karma.[167] This principle is primarily applied to matters of divine retribution for an individual's actions, rather than legal frameworks. David Wolpe has drawn comparisons between midah k'neged midah and karma, highlighting the shared idea that actions elicit proportional consequences, often from a higher, moral authority.[168]>

Psychoanalysis: Unconscious and Fate

Carl Jung offered a profound insight into the psychological dimension of karma, stating, "When an inner situation is not made conscious, it appears outside as fate."[169] This perspective suggests that unresolved internal conflicts or unconscious patterns can manifest as external circumstances, echoing the karmic principle of cause and effect. Modern psychological methods, including meditation, metacognition, counseling, and psychoanalysis, aim to enhance emotional self-awareness, thereby mitigating negative karmic impacts and fostering emotional hygiene.[170] Scientific research has even demonstrated permanent neuronal changes in brain regions like the amygdala and left prefrontal cortex attributed to long-term meditation and metacognitive practices.[171] This process of emotional maturation aspires towards individuation or self-actualization, leading to "peak experiences" hypothetically devoid of karma, akin to nirvana or moksha.

Theosophy: Law of Return

The concept of karma gained significant traction in the Western world through the efforts of the Theosophical Society. In this interpretation, karma served as a precursor to the Neopagan "law of return" or "Threefold Law," which posits that the beneficial or harmful effects one projects into the world will ultimately return to oneself. This is colloquially summarized as 'what goes around comes around.' Theosophist I. K. Taimni articulated this by stating, "Karma is nothing but the Law of Cause and Effect operating in the realm of human life and bringing about adjustments between an individual and other individuals whom he has affected by his thoughts, emotions and actions."[172] Theosophy also maintains a specific view on reincarnation, asserting that humans exclusively reincarnate as other humans, not as animals or other organisms.[173]>

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References

References

  1.  The words "deed", "acts" above are rendered from karma.[23]
  2.  "Karma" in: John Bowker (1997), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press.
  3.  Karl Potter (1964), The Naturalistic Principle of Karma, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Apr. 1964), pp. 39–49
  4.  Bruce R. Reichenbach, The Law of Karma and the Principle of Causation, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Oct. 1988), pp. 399–410
  5.  Anguttara-Nikaya 3.4.33, Translator: Henry Warren (1962), Buddhism in Translations, Atheneum Publications, New York, pp 216–217
  6.  Damien Keown (1996), Karma, character, and consequentialism, The Journal of Religious Ethics, pp 329–350.
  7.  Harold Coward (1983), "Psychology and Karma", Philosophy East and West 33 (Jan): 49–60.
  8.  Francis X. Clooney, Evil, Divine Omnipotence, and Human Freedom: Vedānta's Theology of Karma, The Journal of Religion, Vol. 69, No. 4 (Oct. 1989), pp. 530–548
  9.  Wilhelm Halbfass (1998), "Karma and Rebirth (Indian Conceptions)", Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, London.
  10.  Juergensmeyer & Roof 2011, pp. 272–273, 652–654.
  11.  Ã‰tienne Lamotte(1936), Le traité de l'acte de Vasubandhu: Karmasiddhiprakarana, in Mélanges chinois et bouddhiques 4, pp 151–288
  12.  Krishan, Y. (1985), The doctrine of Karma and Śraddhas, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 66, No. 1/4, pages 97–115
  13.  Colebrooke, H. T. (1829), Essay on the Philosophy of the Hindus, Part V. Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 2(1), 1–39
  14.  E. Washburn Hopkins, Modifications of the Karma Doctrine, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, (Jul., 1906), pp. 581–593
  15.  Manmatha Nath Dutt, ed. (1896), "Vana Parva", A prose English translation of the Mahabharata, Elysium Press, pp. 46-47.
  16.  Danny Schechter, Falun Gong's Challenge to China: Spiritual Practice or Evil Cult?, Akashic books: New York, 2001, pp. 47–50.
  17.  Kaufman, W. R. (2005), Karma, rebirth, and the problem of evil, Philosophy East and West, pp 15–32
  18.  G. Obeyesekere (1968), Theodicy, sin and salvation in a sociology of Buddhism, Practical religion, Editor: E.R. Leach, Cambridge University Press
  19.  Francis Clooney (1989), "Evil, Divine Omnipotence and Human Freedom: Vedanta's theology of Karma", Journal of Religion, Vol. 69, pp 530–548
  20.  See Kumarila's Slokavarttika; for English translation of parts and discussions: P. Bilimoria (1990), "Hindu doubts about God – Towards a Mimamsa Deconstruction", International Philosophical Quarterly, 30(4), pp. 481–499
  21.  Manmatha Nath Dutt (1895), English translation of The Mahabharata, Udyoga Parva, Chapter 159, verse 15
  22.  Gregory Bailey (1983), Suffering in the Mahabharata: Draupadi and Yudhishthira, Purusartha, No. 7, pp. 109–129
  23.  Ursula Sharma (1973), Theodicy and the doctrine of karma, Man, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 347–364
  24.  The Nyaya-Vaisesika school of Hinduism is one of the exceptions where the premise is similar to the Christian concept of an omnibenevolent, omnipotent creator
  25.  Bruce R. Reichenbach (1989), Karma, Causation, and Divine Intervention, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 135–149
  26.  Whitley Kaufman (2005), Karma, rebirth, and the problem of evil, Philosophy East & West, Vol. 55, No. 1, pp. 15–32
  27.  Chadha and Trakakis (2007), Karma and the Problem of Evil: A Response to Kaufman, Philosophy East & West, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 533–556
  28.  Raymond Collyer Knox and Horace Leland Friess, The Review of Religion, Volume 1, Columbia University Press, pp 419–427
  29.  Jung, C.G. and Wolfgang Pauli, The Interpretation of Nature and Psyche, New York: Pantheon Books, 1955
A full list of references for this article are available at the Karma Wikipedia page

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