What were the primary names or descriptions used to refer to the Kingdom of Hungary between 1920 and 1946?

The Kingdom of Hungary during this period was referred to by several names and descriptions, including retrospectively as the Regency, the Horthy era, the Horthy regime, and Horthyist Hungary.

Who was the central figure and ruler of Hungary for most of the period between 1920 and 1946?

Miklós Horthy was the central figure, serving as the Regent of Hungary for most of this period, representing the Hungarian monarchy.

What political system did Miklós Horthy establish upon coming to power?

Horthy established an authoritarian political system that relied on traditional economic elites and the bureaucracy. This system is sometimes described as para-fascist by historians due to its conservative, nationalist, and anti-communist character.

What was the primary foreign policy objective of Hungary during the Horthy era?

Hungary's foreign policy was dominated by revisionism, aiming to revise or reverse the territorial losses imposed by the Treaty of Trianon, which had significantly reduced Hungary's size and population.

How did the Treaty of Trianon affect Hungary's territory and population?

The Treaty of Trianon, signed in 1920, caused Hungary to lose over 70% of its historic territory and more than three million Hungarians, who found themselves living outside the new borders in neighboring countries.

Which countries gained territory from Hungary as a result of the Treaty of Trianon?

As a result of the Treaty of Trianon, Romania gained Transylvania, Czechoslovakia gained Upper Hungary, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) gained Vojvodina. Austria also received a small territory.

What was the significance of the Easter Crisis and the March on Budapest in 1921?

These events refer to the attempts by the former King Charles IV to reclaim the Hungarian throne. His efforts were ultimately unsuccessful, as the Royal Hungarian Army remained loyal to Horthy, leading to Charles's arrest and exile.

What action did the Diet of Hungary take regarding the Habsburg dynasty in 1921?

In November 1921, the Diet of Hungary passed a law nullifying the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which formally dethroned Charles IV and abolished the House of Habsburg's rights to the Hungarian throne, leaving Hungary a kingdom without a king.

What were the key characteristics of Horthy's rule as Regent?

Horthy's rule as Regent possessed dictatorial characteristics. He had the power to adjourn or dissolve the Hungarian Diet at his discretion and appointed the Prime Minister, effectively holding significant executive power.

What was the *numerus clausus* law enacted in 1920, and what was its impact?

The *numerus clausus* law formally limited the number of minority students admitted to universities. While ostensibly applying to all minorities, it primarily served as a tool for anti-Jewish actions, concealing discriminatory practices from foreign observers.

How did Hungary's economic situation evolve during the 1920s and early 1930s?

Initially, Hungary faced economic decline, deficits, and inflation due to territorial losses. However, under Prime Minister István Bethlen, the country achieved monetary stabilization through foreign loans and saw increased industrial and farm production during most of the 1920s. This prosperity collapsed with the Great Depression starting in 1929.

What new currency was introduced in Hungary in 1927?

The Hungarian pengő was introduced as the new currency in 1927, replacing the korona.

How did Hungary's foreign policy shift in the late 1930s, and with which countries did it align?

Hungary grew resentful of the Treaty of Trianon and began aligning itself with the fascist powers of Germany and Italy, which opposed the post-WWI border settlements. This alignment strengthened under Prime Minister Gyula Gömbös.

What territorial gains did Hungary make in the late 1930s and early 1940s through its foreign policy alignment?

Through its alignment with Germany and Italy, Hungary regained territories via the First Vienna Award (southern Czechoslovakia) and the Second Vienna Award (Northern Transylvania), and also occupied parts of Yugoslavia.

What was Hungary's role in World War II, and when did it officially join the Axis powers?

Hungary joined the Axis powers shortly after the Second Vienna Award in 1940. It supported Germany in the invasion of Yugoslavia and later declared war on the Soviet Union, participating in Operation Barbarossa.

What led to Germany's occupation of Hungary in March 1944?

Germany occupied Hungary in March 1944 (Operation Margarethe) in response to Hungary's attempts to contact the Allies and negotiate an armistice, fearing a potential shift away from the Axis powers as Soviet forces advanced.

Who replaced Miklós Horthy as Regent, and under what circumstances?

Miklós Horthy was not directly replaced as Regent by a single individual. After being deposed by the Germans in October 1944 following Operation Panzerfaust, Ferenc Szálasi of the Arrow Cross Party became the "Leader of the Nation" and Prime Minister, heading a puppet regime. A collective head of state, the High National Council, was later appointed after the war.

What significant event occurred in Hungary between May and June 1944 regarding its Jewish population?

During this period, Hungarian authorities rapidly rounded up and transported hundreds of thousands of Hungarian Jews to Nazi concentration camps, where most of them perished as part of the Holocaust.

What was the outcome for the Hungarian Second Army Group during the Battle of Stalingrad?

The Hungarian Second Army Group was almost entirely lost during the Battle of Stalingrad, marking a significant loss for Hungary's contribution to the Axis war effort on the Eastern Front.

What happened to Hungary after the fall of the Szálasi regime in 1945?

After the Szálasi regime collapsed, a Soviet-backed government under Béla Miklós was nominally in control. A High National Council was appointed as the collective head of state, and the country began a transition towards a republic, eventually leading to the Second Hungarian Republic.

When was the monarchy formally abolished in Hungary, and what replaced it?

The monarchy was formally abolished on February 1, 1946. It was replaced by the Second Hungarian Republic, which was soon succeeded by the communist Hungarian People's Republic.

How did the Hungarian government under István Bethlen attempt to stabilize the economy in the 1920s?

Bethlen's government sought to stabilize the economy by securing substantial foreign loans and introduced a new currency, the pengő, in 1927.

What was the nature of Hungary's economic relationship with Germany in the 1930s and 1940s?

From the mid-1930s onwards, Hungary's economy became increasingly dependent on Germany, benefiting from trade but also falling under German economic influence.

What was the significance of the Second Vienna Award in 1940?

The Second Vienna Award, an arbitration by Germany and Italy, assigned Northern Transylvania to Hungary, a key territorial gain sought by Hungary to revise the Treaty of Trianon.

What was the Hungarian government's stance on the invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941?

Hungary supported Germany and Italy in the invasion of Yugoslavia by allowing the Wehrmacht access to its territory and subsequently annexing the Bačka (Bácska) region in Vojvodina.

What event led to Hungary declaring war on the Soviet Union in June 1941?

Hungary declared war on the Soviet Union on June 27, 1941, partly out of fear of potential Romanian shifts in allegiance and to support the German war effort during Operation Barbarossa.

What was the outcome of Hungary's military involvement in the Soviet Union during World War II?

Hungary's military involvement, particularly its support during Operation Barbarossa, proved costly. The entire Second Army Group of the Royal Hungarian Army was lost during the Battle of Stalingrad.

What was Operation Panzerfaust in October 1944?

Operation Panzerfaust was a German operation that overthrew Miklós Horthy and his government, installing Ferenc Szálasi and the Arrow Cross Party as a puppet regime in Hungary, in response to Hungary's attempts to leave the war.

What was the role of Ferenc Szálasi and the Arrow Cross Party after October 1944?

Ferenc Szálasi became the "Leader of the Nation" and Prime Minister, heading a Hungarist state and continuing the war on the side of the Axis powers. His regime intensified antisemitic persecution and pogroms.

What was the "Government of National Unity" proclaimed in late 1944?

The Government of National Unity was a puppet regime installed by Germany after Operation Panzerfaust, led by Ferenc Szálasi of the Arrow Cross Party, which continued the war effort for the Axis powers.

What was the historical assessment of Hungary's regime in the 1930s and 1940s regarding fascism?

Historians debate the extent to which Hungary's regime was fascist. Some, like Richard Griffiths, argue that its economic dependence on Germany, antisemitic legislation, and participation in the extermination of Jews place it within the realm of international fascism.

What were the main economic consequences for Hungary following the Treaty of Trianon?

The treaty led to the loss of agricultural and industrial areas, making Hungary dependent on exporting products from its remaining land to sustain its economy.

What was the "Regency" in the context of the Kingdom of Hungary (1920-1946)?

The "Regency" refers to the period when Miklós Horthy served as Regent, representing the Hungarian monarchy, even though there was no reigning king. This system was established after the restoration of the monarchy in 1920.

What was the role of the Hungarian Diet (parliament) during Horthy's regency?

The Hungarian Diet continued to exist, but Horthy, as Regent, held the power to adjourn or dissolve it at his discretion, limiting its independent authority.

How did Hungary's foreign policy change after the Munich Agreement?

Following the Munich Agreement, Hungary negotiated territorial disputes with Czechoslovakia, leading to the First Vienna Award, which reassigned southern parts of Czechoslovakia to Hungary. Shortly after, Hungary occupied the remaining territory of Carpatho-Ukraine.

What was the "Hungarist state" established in 1944?

The Hungarist state was a puppet regime established by Nazi Germany after overthrowing Horthy in October 1944. It was led by Ferenc Szálasi of the Arrow Cross Party and continued the war on the side of the Axis powers.

What was the significance of the *Magyar Királyság* (Kingdom of Hungary) in 1941?

In 1941, the Kingdom of Hungary had an area of 172,149 km² and a population of approximately 14.7 million, reflecting territorial gains made through the Vienna Awards and participation in the invasion of Yugoslavia.

What were the primary languages recognized or spoken in the Kingdom of Hungary?

The official language was Hungarian. Rusyn was recognized as a regional language in Subcarpathia, and other languages spoken included Romanian, German, Slovak, Croatian, Serbian, Yiddish, Slovenian, and Romani.

What was the religious composition of Hungary in 1941?

In 1941, the majority of the population was Roman Catholic (55%), followed by Calvinists (19%), Eastern Orthodox (11.6%), Lutherans (5%), Jews (4.9%), and Eastern Catholics (3.8%), with a small percentage of others.

What was the political structure of Hungary from 1944 to 1945?

From 1944 to 1945, Hungary transitioned through several political structures: it was under German occupation with a Nazi-backed government led by Ferenc Szálasi (Hungarist totalitarian state), and then a transitional coalition government emerged following the Soviet advance.

What was the "White Terror" in Hungary following World War I?

The "White Terror" was a period of civil conflict and violent purges carried out by Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists against communists, leftist intellectuals, and Jews between 1919 and 1920, after the collapse of the communist regime.

What was the nature of the Hungarian government between 1919 and 1944, according to historian István Deák?

According to István Deák, Hungary between 1919 and 1944 was a rightist country, characterized by a "nationalist Christian" policy, admiration for heroism and faith, disdain for the French Revolution, and opposition to Bolshevism, cosmopolitanism, and Freemasonry. It was ruled by a small elite and centered around Admiral Horthy.

What was the *Magyar Királyság*?

*Magyar Királyság* is the Hungarian name for the Kingdom of Hungary, which existed as a state from 1920 to 1946.

What was the motto of the Kingdom of Hungary during this period?

The motto was *Regnum Mariae Patrona Hungariae*, which translates from Latin to "Kingdom of Mary, the Patron of Hungary."

What was the official anthem of the Kingdom of Hungary?

The official anthem was *Himnusz*, which translates to "Hymn."

What were the main territorial changes Hungary experienced due to the Treaty of Trianon?

Hungary lost significant territories, including Transylvania to Romania, Upper Hungary to Czechoslovakia, and Vojvodina to Yugoslavia, drastically reducing its size and population.

How did Hungary's government attempt to revise the Treaty of Trianon?

Hungary pursued a revisionist foreign policy, aligning itself with Germany and Italy, which opposed the post-WWI border settlements, leading to territorial gains through diplomatic arbitration and military action.

What was the *numerus clausus* law's impact on social criteria for university admission after 1928?

After 1928, racial criteria in the *numerus clausus* law were removed and replaced by social criteria, categorizing applicants based on their social standing, such as civil servants, war veterans, landowners, industrialists, and merchants.

What was the stated goal of the Hungarian government under István Bethlen regarding the Treaty of Trianon?

István Bethlen's government actively pushed for the revision of the Treaty of Trianon, seeking to regain territories lost after World War I.

What was the outcome of Hungary's military involvement in the Soviet Union during World War II?

Hungary's military involvement, particularly its support during Operation Barbarossa, proved costly. The entire Second Army Group of the Royal Hungarian Army was lost during the Battle of Stalingrad.

What was the "monarchy without a king" concept as applied to Hungary during this period?

This term describes the state of Hungary from 1920 to 1946, where the country was constitutionally a monarchy, but with no reigning king. Miklós Horthy served as Regent, representing the absent monarch.

Kingdom Of Hungary 1920 U20131946 Wiki: The Regent's Realm: Hungary's Turbulent Interwar Kingdom (1920-1946)

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Historical Overview

A Monarchy Without a King

The Kingdom of Hungary, often referred to retrospectively as the Regency or the Horthy era, existed from 1920 to 1946. This period was characterized by the rule of Admiral Miklós Horthy, who served as Regent, officially representing the Hungarian monarchy. However, there was no reigning king, and Horthy's administration established an authoritarian political system.

Constitutional Framework

Formally, Hungary was a constitutional monarchy. Yet, Horthy's regency concentrated significant power in his hands. He possessed the authority to dissolve the Diet (parliament) and appoint the Prime Minister, effectively creating a presidential-like system within a monarchical structure. This unique arrangement reflected the instability following World War I and the complex political landscape.

Post-War Context

Emerging from the dissolution of Austria-Hungary and subsequent revolutionary periods (including the Hungarian Soviet Republic and the White Terror), Hungary faced immense challenges. The Treaty of Trianon (1920) drastically reduced its territory and population, fueling nationalistic sentiment and a strong revisionist foreign policy aimed at reclaiming lost lands.

Formation and Restoration

Post-Revolutionary Turmoil

Following World War I, Hungary experienced a tumultuous period marked by the short-lived Hungarian Democratic Republic and the even briefer Hungarian Soviet Republic led by Béla Kun. The subsequent "White Terror," enacted by anti-communist and monarchist forces, violently purged perceived leftist elements.

The Regency Established

In the aftermath of these upheavals, on February 29, 1920, a coalition of right-wing forces restored Hungary as a constitutional monarchy. However, the Allied powers vetoed any return of the Habsburg dynasty. Consequently, Admiral Miklós Horthy was elected Regent on March 1, 1920, tasked with representing the monarchy's authority.

The Shadow of Trianon

The formal establishment of the Kingdom coincided with the signing of the Treaty of Trianon on June 4, 1920. This treaty imposed severe territorial losses, ceding significant regions to Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia, and creating a deep sense of national grievance that would dominate Hungarian politics for decades.

Horthy's Regency Era

Authoritarian Rule

Admiral Horthy's tenure as Regent (1920–1944) is often described as authoritarian. While maintaining the facade of a constitutional monarchy, his administration suppressed political opposition and relied heavily on conservative elites and the bureaucracy. Historians have characterized the regime as "para-fascist" due to its nationalist, anti-communist, and conservative ideology.

Consolidation of Power

The failure of King Charles IV's attempts to reclaim the throne in 1921 solidified Horthy's position. The Diet formally abolished the Habsburgs' right to the throne, leaving Hungary a kingdom without a monarch. Horthy's powers, initially intended as temporary, became entrenched, shaping the nation's political direction.

Social and Legal Policies

Early policies included the *numerus clausus* law of 1920, which restricted minority representation in universities and legalized corporal punishment. Though ostensibly applied equally, this law primarily served to mask anti-Jewish actions. Later reforms in the late 1920s shifted criteria from ethnicity to social class, but the underlying conservative and nationalist ethos persisted.

Government Structure

The Regent and the Diet

The political system featured a Regent (Horthy) as Head of State, who appointed the Prime Minister. The bicameral Diet, comprising an upper house (Fels\u0151h\u00e1z) and a lower house (K\u00e9pvisel\u0151h\u00e1z), served as the legislative body. However, the Regent's power to influence parliamentary proceedings was substantial.

Political Alignments

The government operated on an often unstable alliance between conservatives and various right-wing factions. While conservatism dominated in the 1920s under Prime Minister Istv\u00e1n Bethlen, Horthy increasingly navigated between these groups, sometimes aligning with more radical elements. Bethlen's Party of Unity consistently won elections during his tenure, partly due to electoral system manipulations.

Shifting Political Tides

The economic crisis following the Great Depression led to political instability, culminating in Bethlen's resignation. Gyula G\u00f6mb\u00f6s, a proponent of a one-party state model akin to Italy and Germany, briefly served as Prime Minister. Despite initial concessions on antisemitism, his tenure saw increasing alignment with Nazi Germany's agenda.

Economic Landscape

Post-Trianon Challenges

The territorial losses imposed by the Treaty of Trianon severely impacted Hungary's economy. The loss of agricultural lands and industrial centers created dependency on foreign trade and led to significant budget deficits, inflation, and economic decline in the early 1920s.

Stabilization and Dependence

Prime Minister Istv\u00e1n Bethlen sought stabilization through foreign loans, successfully introducing a new currency, the Pengő, in 1927. Industrial and agricultural output saw considerable growth through the 1920s. However, the onset of the Great Depression in 1929 caused a rapid collapse, increasing Hungary's economic reliance on Germany from the mid-1930s onwards.

Currency Reforms

The initial currency was the Hungarian Korona, which suffered from hyperinflation post-WWI. In 1927, the Pengő was introduced as part of stabilization efforts, reflecting a period of relative economic recovery before the global downturn significantly altered the economic trajectory.

Foreign Policy & Revisionism

Revisionism as a Core Tenet

A central objective of Hungary's foreign policy was the revision of the Treaty of Trianon. The perceived injustice of the treaty, which resulted in the loss of over 70% of its historical territory and millions of ethnic Hungarians, fueled a persistent desire to regain these lands.

Alignment with Axis Powers

Hungary gradually aligned itself with Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, both of which opposed the post-WWI European border settlements. Treaties of friendship were signed, notably with Italy in 1927. Figures like Gyula G\u00f6mb\u00f6s actively sought to foster a trilateral relationship, acting as an intermediary between Germany and Italy.

Territorial Gains

Through diplomatic maneuvering and alignment with the Axis powers, Hungary achieved significant territorial revisions prior to World War II. The First Vienna Award (1938) returned southern Czechoslovakia, and following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Hungary annexed Carpatho-Ukraine. The Second Vienna Award (1940) assigned Northern Transylvania back to Hungary from Romania.

World War II Involvement

Axis Alliance and Occupation

Hungary joined the Axis powers, participating in the invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941 and annexing territories like Bačka. The nation declared war on the Soviet Union in June 1941, supporting the German invasion of the USSR. The Hungarian Second Army suffered catastrophic losses at the Battle of Stalingrad.

German Occupation and Puppet Regime

As Soviet forces advanced in 1944, Hungary's attempts to negotiate an armistice with the Allies were discovered by Germany. This led to the German invasion (Operation Margarethe) on March 19, 1944. Horthy was deposed, and a Nazi-backed puppet government led by Ferenc Szálasi and the Arrow Cross Party was installed, intensifying antisemitic persecution and the Holocaust in Hungary.

The Siege of Budapest

The final phase of the war saw the Red Army reach Budapest, initiating a brutal siege that lasted from late 1944 to February 1945. The Szálasi regime collapsed, and a Soviet-backed provisional government under Béla Miklós began to emerge, signaling the end of the Kingdom's effective sovereignty.

Dissolution and Transition

Soviet Influence and Abolition

Under Soviet occupation, the fate of the Kingdom was sealed. A High National Council was appointed as a collective head of state, overseeing the transition. The monarchy was formally abolished on February 1, 1946.

Birth of the Second Republic

Following the abolition of the monarchy, the Second Hungarian Republic was proclaimed in 1946. This marked the end of the Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946) and paved the way for the establishment of the communist Hungarian People's Republic in 1949.

Historical Assessment

Fascist or Authoritarian?

Scholarly debate continues regarding the classification of Horthy's regime. While exhibiting authoritarian characteristics, nationalist ideology, and antisemitic policies, its precise relationship to European fascism remains a subject of historical analysis. Factors like economic dependence on Germany and participation in the Holocaust are critical considerations.

Legacy of Trianon

The enduring legacy of the Treaty of Trianon profoundly shaped Hungary's interwar period. The persistent revisionist agenda influenced foreign policy decisions, ultimately contributing to Hungary's entanglement in World War II alongside the Axis powers, with devastating consequences.

Academic Perspectives

Historians like Richard Griffiths argue that Hungary's increasing economic dependence on Germany, its antisemitic legislation, and its role in the extermination of Jewish populations firmly place the regime within the broader context of international fascism. The period remains a complex case study in European interwar politics.

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References

Claimed by former King Charles IV of Hungary in 1921, who died the following year.

MiklÃ³s Horthy used the title "Regent".

https://www.google.com/books/edition/European_Dictatorships_1918_1945/D32PCwAAQBAJ?&pg=PA324

https://epa.oszk.hu/01300/01368/00011/pdf/1996_7_029-044.pdf

Seamus Dunn, T.G. Fraser. Europe and Ethnicity: The First World War and Contemporary Ethnic Conflict. Routledge, 1996. P97.

IstvÃ¡n DeÃ¡k, "Hungary" in Hans Roger and Egon Weber,eds., The European right: A historical profile (1963) p 364-407 quoting p. 364.

See: Numerus Clausus

Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914â1945, Routledge, 1996, page 420

A full list of references for this article are available at the Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946) Wikipedia page

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This is not professional historical consultation. The content presented does not substitute for rigorous academic research, primary source analysis, or consultation with qualified historians. Users should critically evaluate the information and consult peer-reviewed literature and original documents for comprehensive understanding.

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The Regent's Realm

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Historical Overview ℹ️

👑 A Monarchy Without a King

⚖️ Constitutional Framework

📜 Post-War Context

Formation and Restoration 🏗️

💥 Post-Revolutionary Turmoil

👑 The Regency Established

💔 The Shadow of Trianon

Horthy's Regency Era 👑

🏛️ Authoritarian Rule

⚖️ Consolidation of Power

⚖️ Social and Legal Policies

Government Structure 🏛️

📜 The Regent and the Diet

⚖️ Political Alignments

🔄 Shifting Political Tides

Economic Landscape 💰

📉 Post-Trianon Challenges

📈 Stabilization and Dependence

🏦 Currency Reforms

Foreign Policy & Revisionism 🌍

🗺️ Revisionism as a Core Tenet

🤝 Alignment with Axis Powers

🏆 Territorial Gains

World War II Involvement ⚔️

🇩🇪 Axis Alliance and Occupation

🇩🇪➡️🇭🇺 German Occupation and Puppet Regime

🔥 The Siege of Budapest

Dissolution and Transition ⏳

🇷🇺➡️🇭🇺 Soviet Influence and Abolition

republic Birth of the Second Republic

Historical Assessment 📊

🤔 Fascist or Authoritarian?

⚖️ Legacy of Trianon

📚 Academic Perspectives

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

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Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice for Scholars

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Historical Overview

A Monarchy Without a King

Constitutional Framework

Post-War Context

Formation and Restoration

Post-Revolutionary Turmoil

The Regency Established

The Shadow of Trianon

Horthy's Regency Era

Authoritarian Rule

Consolidation of Power

Social and Legal Policies

Government Structure

The Regent and the Diet

Political Alignments

Shifting Political Tides

Economic Landscape

Post-Trianon Challenges

Stabilization and Dependence

Currency Reforms

Foreign Policy & Revisionism

Revisionism as a Core Tenet

Alignment with Axis Powers

Territorial Gains

World War II Involvement

Axis Alliance and Occupation

German Occupation and Puppet Regime

The Siege of Budapest

Dissolution and Transition

Soviet Influence and Abolition

Birth of the Second Republic

Historical Assessment

Fascist or Authoritarian?

Legacy of Trianon

Academic Perspectives

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice for Scholars