What is the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and when did it occur?

The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also known as the Last Glacial Coldest Period, refers to the most recent period during the Last Glacial Period when ice sheets reached their greatest extent. This period occurred approximately between 26,000 and 20,000 years ago.

What geographical areas were significantly covered by ice sheets during the LGM?

During the Last Glacial Maximum, vast ice sheets covered substantial portions of Northern North America, Northern Europe, and Asia. These ice sheets profoundly impacted Earth's climate and geography.

How did the LGM affect global sea levels?

The immense volume of water locked up in the expanding ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum caused a significant drop in global sea levels. Sea level was approximately 125 meters (about 410 feet) lower than it is today.

What were the primary impacts of the LGM on Earth's climate and environment, beyond ice sheet expansion?

The Last Glacial Maximum led to a major expansion of deserts globally due to drier conditions. The overall hydrological cycle slowed down, resulting in increased aridity in many regions, while average global temperatures were significantly colder than present day.

What dating methods are used to determine the timing of ice sheet growth and maximum coverage during the LGM?

The growth and maximum coverage of ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum are dated using methods such as terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides and radiocarbon dating. These techniques help scientists establish timelines for glacial events.

What is the estimated average global temperature difference between the LGM and today?

It is estimated that the average global temperature during the Last Glacial Maximum, around 21,000 years ago, was approximately 6 degrees Celsius (11 degrees Fahrenheit) colder than present-day temperatures.

According to the USGS, what percentage of Earth's surface and land area was covered by permanent ice during the LGM?

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) indicates that during the Last Glacial Maximum, permanent summer ice covered about 8% of Earth's total surface and approximately 25% of the land area.

What role did the Southern Ocean play in the formation of the LGM?

Carbon sequestration within the highly stratified and productive Southern Ocean is considered essential in producing the conditions of the Last Glacial Maximum. This process influenced atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.

Why did East Asia remain largely unglaciated despite having cold temperatures similar to glaciated regions?

East Asia remained unglaciated, except at higher elevations, because the large European ice sheets produced anticyclones that generated dry air masses reaching Siberia and Manchuria. This lack of sufficient precipitation prevented glacier formation, despite cold temperatures.

How did the LGM affect vegetation cover globally?

Globally, climates were cooler and drier during the LGM. Rainforest cover was significantly reduced, with areas like the Amazon rainforest being split by savannas, and Southeast Asian rainforests being replaced by deciduous forests in many places. Deserts generally expanded, though some arid regions experienced increased rainfall.

Which regions experienced increased humidity and lake formation during the LGM, contrary to the general trend?

Some regions, such as the Western United States, Afghanistan, and Iran, experienced increased humidity and the formation of large pluvial lakes during the LGM. This was due to shifts in the jet stream bringing more rain to these now-arid areas.

What was the condition of Australia's environment during the LGM?

During the LGM, Australia experienced widespread aridity, with shifting sand dunes covering a large portion of the continent and lake levels dropping. However, some areas, like coastal Queensland and the Flinders Ranges, experienced humid conditions, and rainforests persisted in certain eastern Australian locations.

What was the general climate and atmospheric condition worldwide during the LGM?

Worldwide, the climate during the Last Glacial Maximum was generally cooler and drier. The atmosphere was often dust-laden, with dust levels estimated to be 20 to 25 times higher than present levels, likely due to reduced vegetation, stronger winds, and less precipitation.

How did the ice sheets influence atmospheric circulation and cloud cover during the LGM?

The massive ice sheets altered atmospheric circulation patterns. They caused the North Atlantic and Pacific oceans to cool, leading to increased cloud formation. These clouds reflected more sunlight, amplifying the global cooling effect.

What specific changes occurred in Africa and the Middle East during the LGM?

In Africa and the Middle East, smaller mountain glaciers formed, and deserts like the Sahara greatly expanded. The Persian Gulf was significantly shallower, with much of its floor exposed, and only began to flood with seawater around 8,000 years ago.

What were the estimated temperature changes in Southern Africa during the LGM?

Annual average temperatures in Southern Africa are estimated to have been about 6 degrees Celsius lower than present during the Last Glacial Maximum. While this cooling alone might not have caused widespread glaciation, it contributed to periglacial activity in some highland areas.

Describe the glacial conditions in Asia during the LGM.

In Asia, ice sheets were present in Tibet, Baltistan, and Ladakh. Southeast Asia experienced smaller mountain glaciers, and permafrost extended as far south as Beijing. Due to lower sea levels, landmasses like Sundaland connected many Indonesian islands to the Asian continent.

What was the extent of glaciation in Europe during the LGM?

Northern Europe was largely covered by ice sheets, with the southern boundary extending through Germany and Poland. The Fennoscandian ice sheet reached its maximum extent around 17,000 years ago, covering areas like Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, and the Barents and Kara Seas.

How did permafrost conditions vary across Europe during the LGM?

Permafrost extended across Europe south of the main ice sheets, reaching as far south as Szeged in Hungary. However, isolated pockets of relative warmth existed in Central Europe, serving as refugia for species not adapted to extreme cold.

What impact did the LGM have on human populations in Europe?

During the Last Glacial Maximum, Europe experienced a significant reduction in human population, with estimates suggesting a decline of up to 60%. This was likely due to the harsh environmental conditions.

How did the LGM influence the genetic history of indigenous peoples in the Americas?

The glaciers of the LGM forced early human populations migrating from Siberia into refugia, reshaping their genetic variation through processes like mutation and genetic drift. This period established older haplogroups found among Native Americans.

What was the extent of the Patagonian Ice Sheet during the LGM?

In South America, the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered the entire southern third of Chile and adjacent areas of Argentina during the LGM. Glacier lobes extended into depressions like Seno Skyring, Seno Otway, and the Beagle Channel.

How did the LGM affect vegetation in the southern Andes region?

In the southern Andes, valley glaciers merged to form large piedmont lobes. West of Llanquihue Lake, the vegetation during the coldest period was dominated by alpine herbs in open surfaces, with a slow shift towards Nothofagus species as warming occurred.

What were the conditions in Amazonia during the LGM?

Amazonia was significantly drier during the Last Glacial Maximum compared to the present day. Evidence from plant waxes indicates increased aridity, and the Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna.

How did the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) change during the LGM?

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) was weaker and shallower during the Last Glacial Maximum compared to modern times. This circulation pattern significantly influenced the climate of regions like Greenland.

What controversy exists regarding upwelling off the Moroccan coast during the LGM?

There is debate about whether upwelling off the Moroccan coast was stronger during the LGM. While some evidence suggests stronger trade winds led to increased upwelling, other data indicates that upwelling and primary productivity were not consistently enhanced.

How did the Pacific Ocean's circulation and climate conditions differ during the LGM?

During the LGM, the Kuroshio Current in the East China Sea was weaker, and abyssal Pacific overturning was slower than today. However, the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was strong, and the Peruvian Oxygen Minimum Zone was likely weaker due to cooler ocean temperatures.

What was the state of the Great Barrier Reef during the LGM?

Along the coast of Queensland, Australia, the Great Barrier Reef experienced a seaward shift in reef development during the LGM due to the significant drop in sea levels. Microbial carbonate deposition was enhanced due to lower atmospheric CO2 levels.

How were the deep waters of the Indian Ocean affected during the LGM?

The deep waters of the Indian Ocean were significantly less oxygenated during the Last Glacial Maximum compared to the Middle Holocene. The southeastern Arabian Sea's intermediate waters were poorly ventilated due to weakened thermohaline circulation.

What evidence suggests changes in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) during the LGM?

Sediment cores from the Scotia Sea suggest that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current was weaker during the LGM than in the Holocene. Additionally, the Antarctic Polar Front (APF) was located further north, potentially reaching into the southern Indian Ocean.

What is the Late Glacial Period, and when did it occur?

The Late Glacial Period followed the Last Glacial Maximum and preceded the Holocene epoch. It began around 11,700 years ago, marking the transition from the glacial conditions of the LGM towards the warmer climate of the Holocene.

What was the significance of the Dimlington Stadial in Britain?

In Britain, the period corresponding to the Last Glacial Maximum is referred to as the Dimlington Stadial. This stadial is dated to between 31,000 and 16,000 years ago, indicating a significant glacial advance in the region.

How did the LGM impact the extent of landmasses, such as Sundaland and Sahul?

Due to lowered sea levels during the LGM, many islands were connected to the mainland. Sundaland, comprising parts of Southeast Asia and western Indonesia, formed a large landmass, and Sahul connected Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania.

What is the significance of the CLIMAP project mentioned in relation to LGM maps?

The CLIMAP (Climate: Long range Investigation, Mapping, and Prediction) project, conducted by the National Science Foundation in the 1970s and 1980s, produced maps illustrating sea surface temperature changes and glacial extent during the Last Glacial Maximum.

What does the presence of glacial deposits on Mauna Kea indicate about past climate conditions?

The discovery of glacial moraines on Mauna Kea, Hawaii, dating from about 40,000 to 13,000 years ago, indicates that glaciers were present on the volcano during recent ice ages, including periods associated with the Last Glacial Maximum.

How did the LGM affect the distribution of forests in regions like Brazil and China?

During the LGM, subtropical regions experienced significant changes in forest cover. For instance, the Atlantic Forest of Brazil and forests in southern China became much drier, leading to the dominance of open woodland instead of dense forests.

What evidence suggests periglacial activity in the Hex River Mountains of South Africa during the LGM?

The presence of block streams and terraces found near the summit of Matroosberg in the Hex River Mountains provides evidence of past periglacial activity. This activity is believed to have occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum.

What was the estimated height of the Laurentide Ice Sheet at its peak?

At its peak, the Laurentide Ice Sheet reached an estimated height of 3.2 kilometers (approximately 2 miles) around the Keewatin Dome and about 1.7 to 2.1 kilometers (around 1 to 1.3 miles) along the Plains divide.

How did the LGM impact the climate and vegetation of the Cantabrian Mountains in Spain?

In the Cantabrian Mountains, the LGM led to a local glacial recession due to increased aridity. This was caused by the expansion of ice sheets further north and east, which limited snowfall over the mountains of northwestern Spain.

What characterized the climate and vegetation in northeastern Italy near Lake Fimon during the LGM?

Near Lake Fimon in northeastern Italy, the onset of the LGM saw the replacement of open boreal forests with Artemisia-dominated semideserts, steppes, and meadow-steppes. The region experienced a climate that became both drier and colder.

What was the state of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) during the LGM compared to the Holocene?

Evidence from sediment cores suggests that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) was weaker during the Last Glacial Maximum than it was during the Holocene epoch.

What is the approximate sea level drop during the LGM compared to present day?

During the Last Glacial Maximum, the global sea level was approximately 125 meters (about 410 feet) lower than it is in the present day.

What role did anticyclones associated with European ice sheets play in the climate of East Asia during the LGM?

Anticyclones formed above the European ice sheets during the LGM generated air masses that were extremely dry upon reaching Siberia and Manchuria. This dryness limited precipitation, preventing the formation of glaciers in these regions despite cold temperatures.

What specific impact did the LGM have on the hydrological cycle globally?

Globally, the hydrological cycle slowed down during the Last Glacial Maximum. This slowdown contributed to the increased aridity observed in many regions around the world.

What was the estimated reduction in human population in Europe during the LGM?

It is estimated that Europe experienced a significant reduction in human population during the Last Glacial Maximum, with figures suggesting a decline of up to 60% due to the harsh environmental conditions.

How did the LGM affect the sea surface temperature in the western subtropical gyre of the North Atlantic?

Sea surface temperatures in the western subtropical gyre of the North Atlantic were approximately 5 degrees Celsius colder during the Last Glacial Maximum compared to present-day temperatures.

What evidence suggests that the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was strong during the LGM?

Evidence from paleoclimate records indicates that the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon was strong during the Last Glacial Maximum.

What was the condition of the deep South Indian Ocean during the LGM in terms of carbon storage?

The deep South Indian Ocean acted as a significant carbon sink during the Last Glacial Maximum. This role is thought to partially explain the very low partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) observed during that period.

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Overview

Defining the Period

The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred to as the Last Glacial Coldest Period, represents the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period when ice sheets attained their greatest extent. This period is estimated to have occurred between approximately 26,000 and 20,000 years ago.

Global Transformation

The LGM profoundly reshaped Earth's climate. It led to a significant expansion of deserts, a substantial drop in global sea levels, and altered atmospheric conditions worldwide, characterized by cooler and drier climates.

Dating the Maximum

While precise dates vary among researchers based on specific criteria and data sets, the peak glacial coverage is generally placed between 26,500 and 20,000 years ago. The growth of ice sheets in the Southern Hemisphere began earlier, around 33,000 years ago.

Glacial Climate

Temperature Decline

During the Last Glacial Maximum, approximately 21,000 years ago, the average global temperature was significantly colder than today, estimated to be around 6°C (11°F) lower than present-day averages.

Ice Sheet Extent

Permanent summer ice covered about 8% of Earth's surface and 25% of the land area. This extensive glaciation included vast ice sheets covering much of North America, Northern Europe, and Asia.

Sea Level Drop

The immense volume of water locked within the ice sheets caused a dramatic reduction in global sea levels. It is estimated that sea levels were approximately 125 meters (410 feet) lower than they are today.

Atmospheric Conditions

The atmosphere was characterized by increased dust levels, potentially 20 to 25 times greater than present levels, due to reduced vegetation, stronger global winds, and less precipitation to clear the air. Many regions experienced significantly drier conditions.

Global Impact

Reshaping Landscapes

The LGM's climatic shifts led to widespread desert expansion, altered vegetation patterns, and the formation of large pluvial lakes in some regions due to changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation.

Exposed Landmasses

Lowered sea levels exposed continental shelves, connecting landmasses and creating extensive coastal plains. This facilitated migrations and altered marine ecosystems.

Amplified Cooling

The presence of massive ice sheets influenced atmospheric circulation, leading to cooler oceans and increased cloud cover in certain areas, which in turn reflected more sunlight, amplifying the global cooling effect.

Africa & Middle East

Glaciation and Deserts

Smaller mountain glaciers formed in regions like the Drakensberg Mountains. The Sahara and other sandy deserts expanded significantly in extent, with rainfall potentially diminished by up to 90% in some areas like South Australia and the Sahel.

Hydrological Changes

The Persian Gulf's seabed was largely exposed due to lower sea levels, with the Tigris-Euphrates river system flowing into the Gulf of Oman. Seasonal ground freezing likely occurred in the Lesotho Highlands.

Asia

Ice Sheets and Permafrost

Ice sheets covered parts of Tibet and Baltistan, while permafrost extended as far south as Beijing. Southeast Asia experienced reduced rainforest cover, replaced by grasslands and tundra in some areas.

Sundaland and Wallacea

Due to lower sea levels, islands like Borneo and Bali were connected to the Asian continent via the landmass of Sundaland. The region between Sundaland and Sahul formed the archipelago of Wallacea.

Vegetation Shifts

Despite cold climates, East Asia largely remained unglaciated due to dry air masses. Northern China featured grassland and tundra, while the northern tree line shifted significantly southward.

Australasia

Sahul Continent

The Australian mainland, New Guinea, and Tasmania were joined as a single landmass known as Sahul. Sea levels were approximately 125 meters lower, exposing the Bonaparte Gulf region.

Arid Interior

Interior Australia experienced widespread aridity, evidenced by extensive dune activity and falling lake levels. However, some coastal areas in Queensland and southwestern Western Australia showed evidence of humid conditions or persistent rainforests.

New Zealand Glaciation

The main islands of New Zealand were joined. The Southern Alps were largely covered by permanent ice, with glaciers extending into the surrounding high country.

Europe

Ice Sheet Dominance

Northern Europe was extensively covered by ice sheets, with the southern boundary extending through Germany and Poland. This included the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet reaching its maximum extent around 17,000 years ago.

Permafrost and Refugia

Permafrost extended south of the ice sheets into Central Europe. Despite the cold, isolated pockets of relative warmth served as refugia for certain plant and animal species.

Human Population Decline

Europe experienced a significant reduction in human population during the LGM, with estimates suggesting a decline of up to 60%, likely due to the harsh climatic conditions.

North America

Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets

The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of Canada east of the Rockies and extended into the northern United States. The Cordilleran Ice Sheet dominated western Canada and parts of Montana.

Beringia's Climate

Eastern Beringia (modern Alaska and Yukon) was extremely cold and dry, with July temperatures 2-3°C lower than today. This region served as a crucial refugium for early human populations migrating from Siberia.

Human Migration Impact

The glacial conditions and refugia influenced the genetic variation of Indigenous peoples of the Americas, shaping the older haplogroups found today.

South America

Patagonian Ice Sheet

The Patagonian Ice Sheet covered the southern third of Chile and adjacent areas of Argentina. Valley glaciers merged to form large piedmont lobes, reaching sea level as far north as the Chacao Channel.

Vegetation and Climate

Much of Patagonia experienced ice-free refugia for some plant species. Areas west of Llanquihue Lake were dominated by alpine herbs, later transitioning to Nothofagus forests as warming occurred.

Amazonian Aridity

Amazonia was significantly drier than today, with evidence from plant waxes indicating increased aridity. Eastern Brazil also experienced drier conditions.

Atlantic Ocean

Ocean Circulation

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) was weaker and shallower during the LGM. Sea surface temperatures in the North Atlantic gyre were approximately 5°C colder.

Water Properties

Intermediate depth waters were better ventilated by Glacial North Atlantic Intermediate Water (GNAIW), which was nutrient-poor compared to present-day North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). Deep North Atlantic waters were nutrient-rich.

Weathering Flux

Reduced continental weathering flux into the North Atlantic, measured by isotopic ratios, was a consequence of the immense ice sheets in Europe and North America.

Pacific Ocean

Sea Surface Temperatures

Low sea surface temperatures and salinity in the East China Sea suggest a reduced strength of the Kuroshio Current. Abyssal Pacific overturning was weaker than today.

ENSO and Oxygen Zones

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was strong during the LGM. The Peruvian Oxygen Minimum Zone was weaker than present, likely due to cooler, more oxygenated seawater.

Volcanic Influence

On Hawaii, glacial deposits indicate ice sheet formation on Mauna Kea, with the latest episodes occurring between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago.

Indian Ocean

Deep Water Oxygenation

Deep waters of the Indian Ocean were significantly less oxygenated during the LGM compared to the Middle Holocene. The deep South Indian Ocean acted as a substantial carbon sink.

Arabian Sea Ventilation

Intermediate waters in the southeastern Arabian Sea were poorly ventilated due to weakened thermohaline circulation.

Southern Ocean

Antarctic Circumpolar Current

Evidence suggests the Antarctic Circumpolar Current was weaker during the LGM compared to the Holocene. The Antarctic Polar Front shifted significantly northward.

Supervolcanic Eruption

The Oruanui eruption, approximately 25,500 years BP, may have further depressed temperatures in regions near New Zealand during the LGM.

Late Glacial Period

Transition to Holocene

The Late Glacial Period followed the Last Glacial Maximum. This transitional phase preceded the start of the Holocene epoch, which began approximately 11,700 years ago, marking the end of the last major glacial period.

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References

Richard Z. Poore, Richard S. Williams, Jr., and Christopher Tracey. "Sea Level and Climate". United States Geological Survey.

"Land and Ocean Summary". Berkeley Earth.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Last Glacial Maximum Wikipedia page

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This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional geological, climatological, or historical consultation. Always refer to primary scientific literature and consult with qualified professionals for specific research needs.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

The Frozen Epoch

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview ❄️

⏳ Defining the Period

🌍 Global Transformation

📅 Dating the Maximum

Glacial Climate 🌡️

🥶 Temperature Decline

🧊 Ice Sheet Extent

🌊 Sea Level Drop

💨 Atmospheric Conditions

Global Impact 🌐

🗺️ Reshaping Landscapes

🌊 Exposed Landmasses

💨 Amplified Cooling

Africa & Middle East 🏜️

🧊 Glaciation and Deserts

💧 Hydrological Changes

Asia 🌏

🧊 Ice Sheets and Permafrost

🏝️ Sundaland and Wallacea

🌳 Vegetation Shifts

Australasia 🐨

🗺️ Sahul Continent

🏜️ Arid Interior

🏞️ New Zealand Glaciation

Europe 🏰

🧊 Ice Sheet Dominance

🥶 Permafrost and Refugia

🚶 Human Population Decline

North America 🍁

🧊 Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets

🌬️ Beringia's Climate

🚶 Human Migration Impact

South America 🐍

🧊 Patagonian Ice Sheet

🌳 Vegetation and Climate

💧 Amazonian Aridity

Atlantic Ocean 🌊

🌬️ Ocean Circulation

🧪 Water Properties

🏭 Weathering Flux

Pacific Ocean 🌊

🌡️ Sea Surface Temperatures

🌀 ENSO and Oxygen Zones

🌋 Volcanic Influence

Indian Ocean 🌊

🧪 Deep Water Oxygenation

💨 Arabian Sea Ventilation

Southern Ocean 🌊

🌊 Antarctic Circumpolar Current

🌋 Supervolcanic Eruption

Late Glacial Period ➡️

⏳ Transition to Holocene

Related Topics 🔗

📚 Further Exploration

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

Defining the Period

Global Transformation

Dating the Maximum

Glacial Climate

Temperature Decline

Ice Sheet Extent

Sea Level Drop

Atmospheric Conditions

Global Impact

Reshaping Landscapes

Exposed Landmasses

Amplified Cooling

Africa & Middle East

Glaciation and Deserts

Hydrological Changes

Asia

Ice Sheets and Permafrost

Sundaland and Wallacea

Vegetation Shifts

Australasia

Sahul Continent

Arid Interior

New Zealand Glaciation

Europe

Ice Sheet Dominance

Permafrost and Refugia

Human Population Decline

North America

Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets

Beringia's Climate

Human Migration Impact

South America

Patagonian Ice Sheet

Vegetation and Climate

Amazonian Aridity

Atlantic Ocean

Ocean Circulation

Water Properties

Weathering Flux

Pacific Ocean

Sea Surface Temperatures

ENSO and Oxygen Zones

Volcanic Influence

Indian Ocean

Deep Water Oxygenation

Arabian Sea Ventilation

Southern Ocean

Antarctic Circumpolar Current

Supervolcanic Eruption

Late Glacial Period

Transition to Holocene

Related Topics

Further Exploration

Teacher's Corner

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Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

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References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice