Charting the Uncharted
An academic exploration into the monumental journey that unveiled the American West, from its strategic motivations to its enduring scientific and cultural legacies.
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Expedition Overview
America's Western Odyssey
The Lewis and Clark Expedition, officially known as the Corps of Discovery Expedition, was a pivotal United States undertaking to traverse the newly acquired western territories following the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. This select group of U.S. Army and civilian volunteers embarked on a journey that would redefine the nation's understanding of its continental expanse.
A Journey of 862 Days
Under the joint command of Captain Meriwether Lewis and Second Lieutenant William Clark, the expedition commenced on May 14, 1804, from Camp Dubois, Illinois. Their ambitious route led them up the Missouri River, across the formidable Continental Divide near Lemhi Pass, and eventually to the Columbia River, culminating in their arrival at the Pacific Ocean in 1805. The return voyage, initiated on March 23, 1806, from Fort Clatsop, Oregon, concluded six months later on September 23, 1806, marking 862 days of exploration.
The Corps of Discovery
The Corps of Discovery comprised approximately 45 members at its outset, including officers, enlisted military personnel, civilian specialists, and York, an enslaved African American man belonging to Clark. This diverse group faced immense challenges, relying on their collective skills, resilience, and the invaluable assistance of various Native American nations to navigate the vast and often unforgiving wilderness.
Presidential Directives
Commercial Waterway
A primary objective set by President Thomas Jefferson was to identify "the most direct and practicable water communication across this continent, for the purposes of commerce." This quest for an all-water route to the Pacific was driven by the desire to facilitate trade and expand American economic influence across the continent.
Asserting Sovereignty
Jefferson also emphasized the importance of establishing U.S. sovereignty over the lands encompassed by the Louisiana Purchase and beyond. The expedition was tasked with asserting an American presence in these new territories, particularly along the Missouri River, to preempt claims by other European powers and to inform Native American tribes of their new "great father" in Washington.
Scientific & Economic Survey
Beyond strategic and commercial goals, the expedition held significant scientific and economic aims. Lewis and Clark were instructed to document the West's biodiversity, topography, and geography. This included collecting specimens of unknown plants and animals, mapping the terrain, and assessing the natural resources available. Establishing positive trade relations with indigenous tribes was also a key humanitarian and economic objective.
Rigorous Preparation
Lewis's Specialized Training
To ensure the expedition's success, President Jefferson meticulously prepared Meriwether Lewis. Lewis underwent intensive training in Philadelphia, studying medicinal cures under Dr. Benjamin Rush, astronomy and navigation with Andrew Ellicott, and botany and zoology with Benjamin Smith Barton. He also refined his skills in computing latitude and longitude with Robert Patterson and learned about fossils from Caspar Wistar. Lewis's prior access to Jefferson's extensive library on North American geography further enhanced his readiness.
Essential Supplies & Equipment
The expedition was outfitted with a comprehensive array of supplies. Israel Whelen, purveyor of public supplies, procured items such as portable soup, tobacco, spirit of wine, medical and surgical supplies, mosquito netting, and oilskin bags. Advanced weaponry, including an Austrian-made .46 caliber Girandoni air rifle capable of killing a deer, flintlock firearms, and blacksmithing tools, were also part of their arsenal. Special silver "Indian Peace Medals" were minted for distribution to Native American tribes as symbols of friendship and peace.
Canine Companion: Seaman
While in Pittsburgh, Lewis acquired a Newfoundland dog named Seaman. Newfoundlands are known for their large size, amicable nature, and excellent swimming abilities, often assisting on fishing boats. Seaman proved to be an invaluable member of the Corps, contributing to hunting efforts and providing protection from predators. He was the only animal to complete the entire arduous journey.
The Westward Trek
Departure and Early Progress
The Corps of Discovery commenced its journey from Camp Dubois on May 14, 1804, with William Clark leading the initial leg up the Missouri River in a keelboat and two pirogues. Meriwether Lewis joined them six days later in St. Charles, Missouri. The expedition then proceeded through what is now Kansas City and Omaha, navigating the vast Missouri River system.
The Sole Fatality: Charles Floyd
On August 20, 1804, Sergeant Charles Floyd tragically died, likely from acute appendicitis. He was the only member of the Corps to perish during the entire expedition. Floyd was buried at a bluff overlooking the river, a site now named Floyd's Bluff near Sioux City, Iowa, marked by a cedar post bearing his name and date of death. This somber event underscored the perilous nature of their undertaking.
Encounters on the Plains
As the expedition reached the edge of the Great Plains in late August, they encountered abundant wildlife, including elk, deer, bison, pronghorn, and beavers. Establishing relations with Native American nations was crucial for survival. While many tribes offered assistance, the encounter with the Lakota (Sioux) nation near present-day Fort Pierre, South Dakota, proved tense. The Lakota, a powerful and aggressive tribe, demanded tribute for passage, leading to a near-violent confrontation that was ultimately diffused by Chief Black Buffalo and the distribution of tobacco and whiskey.
Winter at Fort Mandan
The winter of 1804โ1805 saw the Corps construct Fort Mandan near present-day Washburn, North Dakota. Here, they engaged in councils with Mandan chiefs and met Toussaint Charbonneau and his young Shoshone wife, Sacagawea, who would become an indispensable translator. Before departing on April 7, 1805, the expedition dispatched the keelboat back to St. Louis, laden with specimens previously unseen east of the Mississippi, along with Lewis's detailed report on the Native American nations encountered.
Reaching the Pacific
Traversing the Divide
Following the Missouri to its headwaters, the Corps crossed the Continental Divide at Lemhi Pass. They then journeyed north to Traveler's Rest, traversed the Bitterroot Range at Lolo Pass, and descended by foot before continuing in canoes down the Clearwater, Snake, and Columbia Rivers. The sighting of Mount Hood and other stratovolcanoes confirmed their proximity to the Pacific Ocean, a moment of profound significance for the expedition.
Dismal Nitch & Fort Clatsop
The Pacific Ocean was first sighted on November 7, 1805, with the expedition arriving two weeks later. They faced a harsh second winter, initially camped in a storm-wracked area Clark dubbed "Dismal Nitch," where food scarcity was a major concern. On November 24, 1805, a vote, notably including Sacagawea and York, led to the decision to establish Fort Clatsop on the south side of the Columbia River, near modern Astoria, Oregon. This fort served as shelter, protection, and a symbolic assertion of American presence.
Wintering and Observations
During their winter at Fort Clatsop, Lewis dedicated himself to extensive journal writing, meticulously documenting the abundant botany and diverse wildlife of the region. The health of the Corps, however, suffered, with many members experiencing colds and influenza. They also gathered intelligence from local Chinooks about maritime fur traders, learning of Captain Samuel Hill's recent visit, though no direct contact was made. Unbeknownst to them, a Russian expedition under Nikolai Rezanov also attempted to enter the Columbia River during this period, aiming to establish an agricultural colony.
The Homeward Journey
Ascending the Columbia
Determined to depart at the earliest opportunity, Lewis initiated the homeward journey on March 23, 1806, after the stormy weather subsided. The Corps ascended the Columbia River by canoe and then continued overland, making their way towards Camp Chopunnish in Idaho. Before leaving, Clark entrusted a letter to the Chinook people, intended for the next ship captain, which ultimately reached Thomas Jefferson before the expedition's return.
Bitterroot Challenges
At Camp Chopunnish, the expedition gathered 65 horses in preparation for crossing the Bitterroot Mountains, which separate modern-day Idaho and western Montana. However, heavy snow cover delayed their crossing. During this waiting period, Lewis's dog, Seaman, was stolen by Native Americans but was quickly retrieved. Lewis issued a stern warning to the chief, emphasizing that any further hostile acts would be met with severe consequences.
Divided Paths & Incidents
On July 3, before recrossing the Continental Divide, the Corps divided into two teams. Lewis's group explored the Marias River, where they encountered men from the Blackfeet nation. A struggle ensued when the Blackfeet attempted to steal their weapons, resulting in the deaths of two Blackfeet men. Lewis, George Drouillard, and the Field brothers were forced to flee over 100 miles in a single day. Meanwhile, Clark's group experienced the disappearance of half their horses in Crow territory, though no Crow individuals were sighted. The groups reunited on August 11 at the confluence of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, where a hunting accident led to Lewis being accidentally shot in the thigh by Pierre Cruzatte, who mistook him for an elk.
Return to St. Louis
Once reunited, the Corps swiftly navigated the Missouri River, reaching St. Louis on September 23, 1806, marking the successful conclusion of their epic journey across the continent.
Spanish Interference
Early Intelligence
Even before the Lewis and Clark Expedition officially began in May 1804, Spanish authorities in New Mexico received intelligence in March 1804 from General James Wilkinson, who was later discovered to be a spy for the Spanish crown. Wilkinson informed them that the Americans were encroaching upon territory claimed by Spain.
Attempts to Intercept
In response to the American expedition, the Spanish launched four armed expeditions from Santa Fe, New Mexico, on August 1, 1804. These forces, comprising 52 soldiers, mercenaries, and Native Americans under the command of Pedro Vial and Josรฉ Jarvet, were tasked with intercepting Lewis and Clark and imprisoning the entire Corps of Discovery. However, their efforts proved unsuccessful. They reached a Pawnee settlement on the Platte River in central Nebraska, only to discover that the American expedition had passed through many days prior, thus evading capture.
Geography & Science
Mapping the Northwest
The Lewis and Clark Expedition made profound contributions to the understanding of North American geography, producing the first accurate maps of the vast western territories. Over the course of their journey, Lewis and Clark meticulously drew approximately 140 maps, which, according to historian Stephen Ambrose, "filled in the main outlines" of the area. These maps provided crucial insights into the relationship between the sources of the Columbia and Missouri Rivers and the Rocky Mountains, fundamentally altering the cartographic representation of the American Northwest.
Documenting Biodiversity
The expedition systematically documented natural resources, plants, and animals previously unknown to European Americans, though familiar to indigenous peoples. Lewis and Clark were the first Americans to cross the Continental Divide, witness Yellowstone, and provide official descriptions of these diverse regions. Their scientific endeavors were supported by the American Philosophical Society (APS), which provided instruction in astronomy, botany, climatology, ethnology, geography, meteorology, mineralogy, ornithology, and zoology. They described over 200 new plant and animal species, bringing back numerous specimens, seeds, and mineral samples.
Sovereignty & Future Settlement
Beyond scientific discovery, the expedition's detailed maps and proclamations of sovereignty, accompanied by the distribution of medals and flags, were critical legal steps in asserting U.S. claims to indigenous lands under the discovery doctrine. The comprehensive information gathered paved the way for future exploration, trade, and settlement of this immense territory in the years that followed.
Native Encounters
Diplomatic Objectives
A core directive from President Jefferson was for the expedition to serve as a surveillance mission, reporting on the locations, military strengths, lifestyles, activities, and cultures of the various Native American tribes inhabiting the Louisiana Purchase and the broader Northwest. The Corps was instructed to convey that these lands now belonged to the United States and that the President was their new "great father." They carried blank leather-bound journals and gifts such as medals, ribbons, and mirrors to facilitate negotiations and ease tensions.
The Teton-Sioux Confrontation
While many tribes were generally friendly, having prior trade relations with British and French fur traders, a significant confrontation occurred on September 25, 1804, with the Teton-Sioux (Lakota people) under chiefs Black Buffalo and the Partisan. The Lakota, who controlled a vast inland empire, demanded tribute for passage through their territory. Communication was challenging due to the absence of their primary Sioux interpreter. A tense standoff, where Lewis ordered a display of force and Clark brandished his sword, nearly escalated into violence before Black Buffalo intervened. The situation was eventually resolved with additional gifts of tobacco and whiskey, allowing the expedition to proceed.
Cultural Observations
The expedition meticulously recorded observations of Native American lifestyles, customs, and social codes. They noted distinct cultural practices, such as the custom among some tribes (e.g., Minnetaree and Mandan) for men to take multiple wives, often from within the immediate family. Chastity among women was not universally highly regarded, and infant daughters were sometimes exchanged for horses or mules, though this practice was not observed among the Shoshone, who held their women in higher esteem. The Corps also witnessed the constant warfare between various tribes, particularly the Sioux, who boasted of the near-complete destruction of nations like the Cahokia, Missouris, Illinois, Kaskaskia, and Piorias.
Sacagawea's Role
Birth and Early Journey
Sacagawea (c. 1788 โ December 20, 1812), a Shoshone woman, joined the expedition with her husband and owner, Toussaint Charbonneau, who served as a translator. On February 11, 1805, shortly after her initial contact with the Corps, Sacagawea endured a difficult labor. Charbonneau suggested a potion of rattlesnake's rattle, which Lewis administered, leading to the successful delivery of a healthy boy named Jean Baptiste Charbonneau.
Interpreter & Diplomat
While popular literature often exaggerates her role as a guide, scholars emphasize Sacagawea's crucial importance as an interpreter and diplomatic asset. Her presence, particularly with her infant son, was reassuring to many indigenous nations, conveying the impression of a peaceful mission and easing tensions during critical negotiations. She played a vital role in facilitating communication and understanding between the Corps and the various tribes they encountered.
Historical Perspectives
Meriwether Lewis's writings sometimes presented a somewhat negative view of Sacagawea. In contrast, William Clark held her in higher regard and provided support for her children in subsequent years. The expedition's journals occasionally used terms like "squaw" and "savages" to refer to Sacagawea and other indigenous peoples, reflecting the prevailing attitudes of the era. Despite these historical nuances, her contributions to the expedition's success are undeniable.
York's Contributions
An Enslaved Explorer
York, an enslaved Black man, participated in the Lewis and Clark Expedition as William Clark's personal servant. His contributions to the Corps of Discovery were significant and multifaceted, proving instrumental to the expedition's overall success. He was a powerful figure, often described as having a large physique, which, combined with his unique appearance (as Native Americans had never seen a Black man), made him a figure of great curiosity and popularity among the indigenous tribes.
Vital Assistance
York's physical strength and skills were invaluable. He actively participated in hunting, providing essential food for the Corps, and performed much of the heavy labor, such as pulling boats upstream against strong currents. His interactions with Native Americans were often positive, and he played a role in diplomatic exchanges, further aiding the expedition's objectives.
Post-Expedition Injustice
Despite his critical contributions and the shared hardships of the journey, York was denied the freedom and rewards granted to other explorers. While his fellow Corps members received double pay and hundreds of acres of land, York received nothing. William Clark initially refused to release York from bondage upon their return, allowing him only a brief visit to Kentucky to see his wife before forcing him back to Missouri. It is believed he never saw his wife again. Ten years after the expedition, York remained enslaved, working as a wagoner for the Clark family. The precise details of York's later life are disputed, with some accounts suggesting he eventually gained freedom and lived as a chief among Native Americans in Wyoming in the 1830s.
Expedition's Impact
Objectives Achieved
The Corps of Discovery successfully achieved its primary objective of reaching the Pacific Ocean, mapping the vast western territories, and establishing an American presence crucial for future land claims. While they did not discover a continuous waterway to the Pacific, they identified a vital Native American trail connecting the upper Missouri River to the Columbia River, which flows to the Pacific. This knowledge was invaluable for future westward expansion.
Diplomatic & Scientific Gains
The expedition established diplomatic relations and initiated trade with at least two dozen indigenous nations, laying groundwork for future interactions. Scientifically, they amassed a wealth of information on the natural habitat, flora, and fauna, bringing back numerous plant, seed, and mineral specimens. Their detailed maps accurately depicted mountain ranges, rivers, and the locations of various Native American tribes. They also extensively documented the languages, customs, and social structures of the tribes encountered, collecting many artifacts, including bows, clothing, and ceremonial robes.
Enduring Legacy
Post-Expedition Reports
Two months after the expedition's return, President Jefferson issued his first public statement, briefly summarizing its success and justifying the expenses. The American Philosophical Society showed intense interest in the botanical and zoological discoveries, requesting specimens, Native American artifacts, and reports on wildlife. Jefferson himself cultivated "Missouri hominy corn" and other seeds from the expedition, noting their excellent food source potential. The expedition solidified the U.S. presence in the newly acquired territory and beyond, paving the way for further exploration, trade, and scientific advancements.
Publication Challenges
Lewis and Clark faced considerable challenges in preparing their journals for publication. Nicholas Biddle eventually edited the journals, published in 1814 as the History of the Expedition Under the Commands of Captains Lewis and Clark. However, Biddle's narrative omitted much of the scientific detail regarding flora and fauna. Consequently, many of Lewis and Clark's discoveries were unknowingly rediscovered and renamed over the next 90 years. It was not until Reuben Gold Thwaites's publication of the Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1904โ1905 that the full scope of their scientific contributions became widely known.
Modern Recognition
For much of the 19th century, references to Lewis and Clark were scarce in history books, and the expedition was largely forgotten. Interest began to revive around the turn of the 20th century, notably with the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the 1905 Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition. Initially celebrated as a tale of conquest and adventure, more recent research has provided a deeper, more nuanced understanding of the expedition. By 1984, Lewis and Clark had become the most famous American exploration party. The bicentennial in 2004 further elevated public interest, coinciding with the compilation of a complete and reliable set of their journals by Gary E. Moulton.
Honors & Memorials
The legacy of Lewis and Clark is honored in numerous ways. Camp Dubois, their winter assembly encampment, was memorialized by the federal government in the 1970s as the expedition's starting point, with Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, also recognized as a starting point in 2019. They have been commemorated on coins, currency, and postage stamps. Geographical features such as Lewis and Clark County in Montana and the Lewis and Clark River in Oregon bear their names. North Dakota State Highways 1804 and 1806 trace their route through the state, and an American elm cultivar, Ulmus americana 'Lewis & Clark' ('Prairie Expedition'), resistant to Dutch elm disease, was released in commemoration of the bicentenary.
Prior Discoveries
French Explorations
Before Lewis and Clark, French explorers had already made significant inroads into North America. In 1682, Renรฉ-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, traveled down the Mississippi River from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, leading to the establishment of a chain of French posts along the river. Other French explorers, including Pedro Vial and Pierre Antoine and Paul Mallet, also ventured into the interior. Pedro Vial, in particular, may have preceded Lewis and Clark into Montana, providing Spanish authorities with a map of the upper Missouri River and transited territories in 1787.
Pacific Northwest Charting
The Pacific Northwest had also seen prior exploration. In early 1792, American explorer Robert Gray, aboard the Columbia Rediviva, discovered and named the Columbia River, claiming it for the United States. Later that year, the Vancouver Expedition, learning of Gray's discovery, utilized his maps and explored over 100 miles up the Columbia River into the Columbia River Gorge. Lewis and Clark subsequently used maps produced by these earlier expeditions when they descended the lower Columbia to the Pacific coast. Furthermore, Alexander Mackenzie had successfully crossed North America from Quebec to the Pacific between 1792 and 1793, twelve years before Lewis and Clark.
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References
References
- 'Chopunnish' was the Captain's term for the Nez Perce Pass
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