Juno's Dominion
An academic exploration into the multifaceted roles, epithets, and enduring legacy of Juno, the formidable Roman goddess.
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What is Juno?
Queen of the Roman Pantheon
Juno was a preeminent ancient Roman goddess, revered as the protector and special counselor of the state. She held the esteemed title of Regina ("Queen") and was a central figure in the Capitoline Triad, alongside Jupiter and Minerva. Her domain extended to overseeing the women of Rome, particularly in matters of marriage and childbirth, making her a crucial deity in Roman societal and religious life.
Greek and Etruscan Equivalents
In the syncretic religious landscape of the ancient world, Juno was directly equated with Hera, the queen of the gods in Greek mythology and a prominent goddess of love and marriage. This assimilation highlights the profound influence of Greek culture on Roman religious thought. Her Etruscan counterpart was Uni, further illustrating the interconnectedness of Italic mythologies.
Divine Lineage and Family
Juno's divine lineage traces back to Saturn and Ops, making her a daughter of these primordial deities. She was both the sister and wife of Jupiter, the king of the gods, a familial structure mirroring that of Hera and Zeus in Greek mythology. Together, Juno and Jupiter parented several significant deities, including Mars, Vulcan, Bellona, Lucina, and Juventas. Her sacred animal, much like Hera's, was the peacock, symbolizing her regal status and beauty.
Etymological Roots
Debated Origins of the Name
The etymology of "Juno" has been a subject of scholarly debate. Initially, it was popularly linked to Iove (Jove), suggesting a derivation from Diuno and Diove, stemming from *Diovona. While this connection still garners some support, a more widely accepted theory, endorsed by Georg Wissowa, proposes a derivation from iuven-, as seen in the Latin iuvenis ("youth"). This suggests a connection to vitality and youthful energy.
The Concept of Vital Force
The root iuven- is related to Latin aevum and Greek aion (αἰών), both stemming from a common Proto-Indo-European root signifying vital energy or "fertile time." The iuvenis, therefore, embodies the fullness of this vital force. Interestingly, Jupiter himself is sometimes referred to as Iuuntus, and one of his epithets, Ioviste, is a superlative form of iuven-, meaning "the youngest." This highlights a shared conceptual foundation of youthful vigor within the Roman pantheon.
Ancient Lunar Associations
Ancient etymologies also connected Juno's name to iuvare ("to aid, benefit") and iuvenescere ("rejuvenate"). These interpretations sometimes linked her to the cyclical renewal of the new and waxing moon, hinting at a potential role as a moon goddess. This perspective suggests a deeper connection to natural cycles and the regenerative forces of life, further enriching the understanding of her diverse attributes.
Complex Roles & Epithets
A Multifaceted Divine Personality
Juno's theological profile is among the most intricate in Roman religion, marked by a vast array of epithets, names, and titles that reflect her diverse aspects and functions. While her central role as a goddess of marriage is evident in epithets like Pronuba and Cinxia ("she who looses the bride's girdle"), many other titles extend far beyond this thematic link, revealing a goddess with broad implications for the Roman state and its people.
Sovereign, Fertility, and Military Aspects
Modern scholarship generally acknowledges Juno's connection to vital force, eternal youthfulness, and the fullness of vital energy. However, the sheer multiplicity of her personality has led to varied interpretations. She is unequivocally recognized as the divine protectress of the community, embodying both sovereign and fertility characteristics, often intertwined with a military dimension. This complex interplay of roles underscores her significance across various spheres of Roman life.
Presence Across Ancient Italy
Juno's cult was widespread throughout ancient Italy, with her presence attested in numerous towns. She was known by various epithets reflecting local nuances of her worship: Sespeis Mater Regina at Lanuvium, Regina at Veii, Regina and Curitis at Tibur and Falerii, and Lucina at Tusculum and Norba. In Rome, she was known from ancient times as Lucina, Mater, and Regina, indicating her foundational importance to the city's religious fabric.
Key Epithets & Their Significance
Juno Lucina: Bringer of Light
The epithet Lucina is particularly illuminating, reflecting two interconnected aspects of Juno's function: the cyclical renewal of time, symbolized by the waning and waxing of the moon, and her protection of delivery and birth, as she who "brings to light" the newborn with vigor and vital force. Ancient Romans even called her Covella in her role as a helper during the "labors" of the new moon. While her direct role as a moon goddess is no longer widely accepted (that role belonging to Diana Lucifera), her association with the moon governed feminine physiological functions, including menstrual cycles and pregnancy.
Juno Sospita: The Savior Protectress
Juno Sospita, meaning "The Savior," was a formidable protectress, often depicted armed and wearing a goatskin cloak, a warlike aspect assimilated from the Greek Athena. Her cult was celebrated with a dies natalis on February 1st, a perilous time of passage in the Roman calendar when the cosmic year ended and the boundaries between worlds blurred. This epithet underscores her role in safeguarding the community during times of vulnerability, embodying both military and regal protection.
Juno Caprotina: Fertility and Renewal
The festival of the Nonae Caprotinae on July 7th vividly illustrates Juno's roles in fertility, war, and regality. This festival involved Roman free and slave women picnicking, engaging in mock battles, and sacrificing a male goat to Juno Caprotina under a wild fig tree. The wild fig tree (caprificus) and the goat were universally associated with sex and fertility in folklore. The legend behind this festival, involving a slave girl named Philotis (or Tutela/Tutula) who saved Rome from Latin invaders through cunning and a signal from a wild fig tree, encapsulates Juno's qualities as a warrior, a fertilizing force, and a sovereign protectress.
Juno Moneta: The Warner
A Deity in a Warlike Context
Juno Moneta is consistently placed in a warring context by ancient sources, reflecting her military aspect. Scholars like Dumézil and Palmer identify her with the third, military function of Juno. Cicero's etymology connects her name to the verb monēre, meaning "to warn," thus identifying her as "the Warner." This epithet suggests a role in providing counsel and forewarning, particularly in times of conflict.
Sacred Geese and Capitol Protection
Her dies natalis was celebrated on the Kalendae of June. Her temple, located on the summit of the Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in 348 BC by dictator L. Furius Camillus, though its origins are believed to be much more ancient. The sacred geese of the Capitol, famously credited with warning the Romans of a Gallic attack around 390 BC, were housed in her temple. This episode underscores her role as a vigilant protectress of Rome.
Origin of "Money"
Juno Moneta's influence extended beyond the divine and military spheres into the economic. Because coins were later minted near her temple, her epithet, moneta, became the Latin term for both the place where coins were made and for currency itself. This linguistic legacy is profound, as the Latin word ultimately gave rise to the English terms "mint" and "money," a testament to her enduring impact on Roman society and beyond.
Juno Regina: The Queen
Debates on Her Roman Origins
The epithet Regina ("Queen") is one of the most debated aspects of Juno's identity. While some scholars argue she was known as such in Rome from the most ancient times as the consort (paredra) of Jupiter in the Capitoline Triad, others suggest she was a later acquisition, introduced to Rome after her evocatio (ritual summoning and transfer) from Veii. Regardless, her regal status is undeniable, reflecting her position as a sovereign deity.
Temples and Cultic Presence
Juno Regina had two significant temples (aedes) in Rome. One, dedicated by Furius Camillus in 392 BC, stood on the Aventine Hill and housed the wooden statue of Juno brought from Veii. This temple was frequently mentioned in connection with sacrifices offered to atone for prodigies (supernatural phenomena). Another temple was located near the Circus Flaminius, vowed by consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 187 BC and dedicated in 179 BC. These temples underscore her importance in Roman state religion.
Juno Caelestis: The Heavenly Queen
The Carthaginian goddess Tanit was Romanized as Juno Caelestis ("Heavenly Juno") after the defeat of Carthage in 146 BC. One of her symbols was the crescent moon, linking her to lunar deities. While she did not initially receive a dedicated temple in Rome, her image was likely housed in another Juno temple before being transferred to Colonia Junonia. This assimilation highlights the Roman practice of integrating foreign deities into their pantheon, particularly those with sovereign or protective attributes.
Juno in the Capitoline Triad
The Capitolium Vetus and Its Significance
The earliest mention of a Capitoline Triad refers to the Capitolium Vetus, a precursor to the grand Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. This triad, comprising Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, is considered peculiarly Roman, with no definitive evidence of its existence elsewhere in Latium or Etruria. While a direct Greek influence is plausible, many scholars also consider it a unique local creation, reflecting distinct Roman theological developments.
Tarquinian Ideological Construction
Georges Dumézil proposed that the Capitoline Triad might have been an ideological construct of the Tarquins, the Etruscan kings of Rome, designed to counter emerging Latin nationalism. This theory suggests that the triad, which included gods often depicted as enemies of Troy in the Iliad, served a political purpose in a period when Latins were increasingly accepting Aeneas as their ancestor. This highlights the interplay between myth, religion, and political power in ancient Rome.
Etruscan Architectural Principles
Ancient sources, such as Servius, state that according to the Etrusca Disciplina, towns should feature three temples dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, situated at the end of three roads leading to three gates. Vitruvius further noted that these temples should be located on the most elevated site, isolated from others. For its Etruscan founders, this triad's meaning might have been linked to Etruscan ideas concerning the birth of Herakles and the siege of Troy, with Minerva playing a crucial role alongside the sovereign couple Uni Tinia (Juno and Jupiter).
Junos of Latium
Regal, Martial, and Fertile Deities
The cults of the Italic Junos across Latium presented remarkable theological complexes, consistently intertwining themes of regality, military protection, and fertility. Notable instances include Tibur, Falerii, Laurentum, and Lanuvium. At Tibur and Falerii, the goddess's priest (sacerdos) was male, a pontifex sacrarius, underscoring her profound relevance to the entire community, not just women.
Lanuvium's Juno Seispes Mater Regina
At Lanuvium, Juno was revered as Seispes Mater Regina, titles that explicitly defined her as a sovereign, martial, and fertility goddess. Her sanctuary was renowned for its wealth and power. A unique aspect of her cult involved the annual feeding of a sacred snake with barley cakes by virgin maidens, who approached the lair blindfolded. This rite, aimed at ensuring agricultural fertility, also symbolized her role as the tutelary goddess of the city, akin to Athena at Athens or Hera at Argos, with the snake representing the guardian of the city.
Laurentum's Juno Kalendaris
In Laurentum, Juno was known as Kalendaris Iuno, honored ritually at the Kalendae (first day) of each month from March to December. This practice, reflecting the pre-Numan ten-month year, testifies to the antiquity of her association with the beginnings of lunar cycles and the passage of time. While Greek influence is evident in some of these cults, Roman scholars like Cicero noted distinct differences between the Latin Juno Seispes and the Argolic Hera, highlighting the unique indigenous development of Juno's character in Italy.
Theological & Comparative Study
Scholarly Debates on Juno's Essence
The intricate nature of Juno's figure has long fueled uncertainty and debate among modern scholars. Some prioritize a single aspect, such as her vital force of youthfulness (Palmer, Harmon) or women's fecundity (Latte), viewing other characteristics as natural developments. This approach seeks to identify a primary, foundational role from which her complex theology as a sovereign and armed tutelary deity evolved.
Dumézil's Trifunctional Hypothesis
Georges Dumézil, conversely, proposed the irreducibility and interdependence of Juno's three core aspects: sovereignty, war, and fertility. He interpreted this as an original, inherent structure, aligning with his hypothesis of the trifunctional ideology of the Indo-Europeans. Dumézil argued that while male gods often embodied a single function, female goddesses like Juno synthesized all three, reflecting an idealized woman's role in society. Even with a primary affinity for fertility, she maintained competence across all three functions.
Indo-European Parallels
Dumézil found concrete parallels in Vedic and Avestic religions. The Vedic goddess Sarasvati, a river deity, exhibited all three valences: fertility (mother, vital forces), religious sovereignty (pure, aids pious thoughts), and warrior (allied with Maruts, destroyer of oppositions). Similarly, the Avestic Anahita, the great mythic river, was explicitly invoked by warriors, clerics, and deliverers, bestowing easy delivery, vigor, and purification. These comparative studies suggest a deep, shared Indo-European root for such multifaceted female deities, with titles like "The Wet, The Strong, The Immaculate" perfectly matching those of Latin Junos, particularly Lanuvium's Juno Seispes Mater Regina.
Associations with Other Deities
Juno and Jupiter: The Divine Couple
The association of Juno and Jupiter forms the bedrock of ancient Latin theology. Their divine coupling received its matrimonial implications from Greek influence, solidifying Juno's role as Iuno Pronuba, the tutelary goddess of marriage. Praeneste offers a unique glimpse into their original Latin mythology, depicting Fortuna nursing two infants, Jove and Juno, suggesting their primordial status. This relationship, however, also presents intriguing contradictions, such as Fortuna being called both mother and daughter of Jupiter, a paradox mirrored in Vedic religion with deities like Aditi, highlighting the complex, non-linear nature of divine genealogies in Indo-European mythologies.
Juno and Janus: Beginnings and Passages
Juno's relationship with Janus, the god of beginnings and passages, is primarily reflected in their shared association with the Kalendae (first day) of every month and the festival of the Tigillum Sororium. Janus, as the gatekeeper of Heaven and Earth, presides over time and motion, receiving the first sacrifices of the new year. Juno, particularly as Juno Covella, cooperates with Janus in overseeing the birth of the new moon, aiding it through her vital strength, much like Lucina assists women in childbirth. This partnership underscores their roles in protecting and facilitating transitions, both cosmic and human.
Juno and Hercules: Protectors of the Newborn
Despite Hercules' Greek origins, his figure was assimilated into Italic religions, leading to an association with Juno in the protection of the newborn. This function likely superseded that of the original Latin gods Picumnus and Pilumnus. Inscriptions found at the temple of Hercules in Lanuvium, whose cult was second only to Juno Sospita, attest to this connection. The exclusion of women from Hercules' cults, a characteristic practice in fertility rites, further links him to Juno's domain. Their shared fertility and military characters formed the basis of their ancient association, particularly in Rome and Tusculum, where a cult of Juno Lucina and Hercules was known.
Juno and Genius: Individual Tutelary Spirits
The concept that Juno served as the feminine counterpart to Genius—a tutelary entity or "double" for men—has been widely discussed. While men possessed a genius embodying their essential character and generative force, women were believed to have their own juno. This idea, though primarily attested in later imperial age documentation, suggests a profound belief in individual divine guardianship. The Arval sacrifice of two sheep to the "Juno of goddesses named Dea Dia" further hints at this theological distinction. Interestingly, while the genius was associated with the forehead of men, Juno was believed to have jurisdiction over the eyebrows of women, or even everyone, irrespective of sex, highlighting a subtle yet pervasive presence in human identity.
Juno's Sacred Festivals
Calendar of Celebrations
Juno's festivals were predominantly held on the Kalendae (first day) of each month, reflecting her deep association with the beginning of lunar cycles. Exceptions included the Nonae Caprotinae on the Nones of July and the festival of Juno Capitolina on September 13th, dates determined by Jupiter's preeminence. This calendar of rites underscores her role in overseeing temporal transitions and the cyclical renewal of life.
Matronalia and Nonae Caprotinae
On March 1st, women celebrated the Matronalia in honor of Juno Lucina, "she who brings children into light," with sacrifices of lambs and cattle. This festival emphasized her role in childbirth and maternal protection. The Nonae Caprotinae, held on July 7th, was a vibrant festival involving free and slave women picnicking, engaging in mock battles, and sacrificing a male goat to Juno Caprotina under a wild fig tree, symbolizing fertility, war, and regality.
Juno Sospita and Tigillum Sororium
The festival of Juno Sospita on February 1st was a crucial celebration, as February was considered a perilous time of passage, marking the end of the cosmic year. The community invoked the protection of the warlike "Savior" Juno during this vulnerable period. On October 1st, the Tigillum Sororium honored Juno Sororia, a rite of purification that served to "desacralize" soldiers at the end of the warring season, cleansing them from the religious pollution contracted in battle. This highlights Juno's multifaceted role in both protection and purification.
Etruscan Uni & Other Influences
Etruscan Cultural Exchanges
The Etruscans, a people with extensive contacts across the Mediterranean, engaged in significant cultural exchanges with Greeks, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians. Evidence from the sanctuary at Gravisca near Tarquinia, active from the late 4th century BC, reveals intense interactions. The cult of Hera, equated with Juno, was attested in Etruria, particularly in major trading centers like Croton, Posidonia, and Pyrgi, often serving as a counterpoint to Aphrodite's cult by emphasizing legitimate marriage and family sanctity.
Uni, Astarte, and the Pyrgi Tablets
The discovery of the Pyrgi Tablets in 1964 illuminated the complex relationship between the Etruscan goddess Uni and the Phoenician goddess Astarte. These tablets confirmed Augustine of Hippo's earlier assertion that Juno was named Astarte in the Punic language. While some scholars debate whether this identification was linked to a transient political phase, it undeniably demonstrates a profound syncretism. The local Etruscan Uni, often associated with Thesan (the Etruscan Aurora/Mater Matuta), likely integrated these diverse influences, becoming the Roman Juno Lucina and Mater Matuta.
Juno in Martianus Capella's Heaven
Martianus Capella's division of Heaven into sixteen regions, believed to reflect Etruscan religious lore, offers further insight into Juno's placement. Juno is found in Region II, alongside Quirinus Mars and other deities, a position mirrored by Uni in the Piacenza Liver. Intriguingly, an entity named "Juno Hospitae Genius" appears alone in Region IX, and "Juno Caelestis" is located in Region XIV with Saturn. This placement of Juno Caelestis among underworld gods, likely due to her association with Saturn in Africa, highlights the intricate and sometimes unexpected theological connections within the Roman and Etruscan pantheons.
Juno Caelestis: North African Queen
Merged with Tanit
Juno became the subject of significant cult worship in North Africa, where she was syncretized with the indigenous Punic goddess Tanit. This merger created a powerful new divine entity, Juno Caelestis, or "Heavenly Juno," who held immense religious importance across the region. Her worship represented a blend of Roman and local traditions, demonstrating the adaptability of religious practices in the Roman Empire.
Carthage's Holy Site
The Temple of Juno Caelestis in Carthage was one of the largest and most significant building monuments in the city. Dedicated to the City Protector Goddess, it became a revered holy site, attracting pilgrims from across North Africa and Spain. This temple stood as one of the most prominent sacred locations in the entire Roman Empire, underscoring the widespread devotion to Juno Caelestis and her role as a guardian deity for the Carthaginian populace under Roman rule.
Temple at Samos
The Heraion of Samos
The Ionian Greeks on the island of Samos constructed a magnificent sanctuary dedicated to the goddess Hera, with its origins potentially dating back to the 8th century BC. This grand complex, known as the Heraion of Samos, was celebrated by the historian Herodotus as one of Samos' three engineering marvels, alongside the Tunnel of Eupalinos and the island capital's harbor works. Its scale and architectural ambition reflected the profound reverence for Hera in the Greek world.
Association with Roman Juno
Given the direct equation of Hera with the Roman goddess Juno, the Heraion of Samos is also historically associated with Juno. This connection is evident in later literary works, such as Giovanni Boccaccio's vivid, albeit fanciful, description of the temple ruins in his Genealogia Deorum. The enduring legacy of this Greek sanctuary thus extends to the Roman goddess, highlighting the shared mythological heritage and the interpretive lens through which ancient deities were understood across cultures.
Juno in Literature
Virgil's Aeneid: The Antagonist
Juno's most prominent and often antagonistic role in Roman literature is found in Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid. Here, she is depicted as a cruel and savage goddess, fiercely opposing Aeneas's destiny to found a new Troy in Italy. Her relentless efforts to thwart Aeneas, first by supporting Dido and then Turnus and the Rutulians, drive much of the narrative's conflict. The grammarian Servius suggested her portrayal in the Aeneid was a conflation of the Greek Hera with Tanit, the Carthaginian storm-goddess, reflecting the complex cultural influences on Roman mythology.
Ovid and Shakespeare: Enduring Presence
Ovid's Metamorphoses offers a charming account explaining Juno's sacred association with the peacock, a tale that has cemented this iconic image in popular culture. Beyond classical antiquity, Juno's figure continued to inspire. Giovanni Boccaccio included her in his 14th-century work, De Mulieribus Claris, a pioneering collection of biographies of notable women. Even William Shakespeare briefly featured Juno as a masque character in Act IV, Scene I of The Tempest, demonstrating her enduring symbolic power and recognition across different literary eras.
Modern Reception
Juno in Spaceflight
In a testament to her enduring legacy and association with Jupiter, NASA launched a space probe to Jupiter in 2011, naming it "Juno." This naming choice directly references her mythological relationship to the god Jupiter, symbolizing the probe's mission to unveil the secrets of the gas giant. This modern application of her name highlights how ancient myths continue to resonate and inspire scientific exploration in contemporary society.
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References
References
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- Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215.
- P. K. Buttmann Mythologus I Berlin 1828 p. 200 ff.; J. A. Hartung Die Religion der Römer II Erlangen 1836 p. 62 ; L. Preller Rômische Mythologie I.
- G. Wissowa Religion und Kultus der Römer Munich 1912 pp. 181-2, drawing on W. Schulze and W. Otto in 1904 and 1905. Juno would then be a derivate noun in -Ån-, rather unusual in the feminine.
- G. Wissowa above p. 135; G. Dumézil La relig. rom. arch. Paris 1974; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 185-186; C. W. Atkins "Latin 'Iouiste' et le vocabulaire religieux indoeuropéen" in Mélanges Benveniste Paris, 1975, pp.527-535
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- G. Radke Die Götter Altitaliens Münster 1965 articles Tutela, Tutula and Fluonia, Fluviona.
- Varro VI 27: "sic :"Die te quinti kalo Iuno Covella" or "Septimi die te kalo Iuno Covella"; but the text looks to be corrupt: R. Schilling restitutes: "... dixit quinquies: "Kalo Iuno Covella" aut (or) septies: "Kalo Iuno C." ".
- Ovid Fasti II 19-46: see also Servius Aeneid VIII 343; Varro Lingua Latina VI 13; Paulus ex Festo s.v. p. 75 L
- Paulus ex Festo above p. 75 L; Mythographi Romani III 3; Martianus Capella De Nuptiis Mercurii et Philolologiae II 149: "Iuno Februalis".
- Y._M. Duval "Les Lupercales, Junon et le printemps." Annales be Bretagne et des Pays de l'Ouest 83 1976 p. 271-2.
- Mythographi Romani III 3; Paulus ex Festo s.v. p. 82 L; Martianus Capella above II 149; Arnobius Adversus Nationes III 30; R. E. A. Palmer above, p.
- CIL VI 356-361; 3694-5; 30199.
- In 41 BC Q. Pedius quaestor built or restored a wall which seems to have surrounded both: cf. CIL VI 358.
- S. Ball Platner & T. Ashby A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome London 1929 p. 288-9.
- Plutarch Camillus 33; Romulus 29; Varro Lin. Lat. VI 18; Macrobius Sat. I 11, 35-40
- P. Drossart "Nonae caprotinae: la fausse capture des Aurores" in Revue de l'Histoire des Religions 185 2 1974 p. 129-139
- A description of Juno Sespeis's attire is given in Cicero De Natura Deorum I 82: "cum pelle caprina, cum hasta, cum calceolis repandis": "with a goat skin, a spear and pointed boots curving backwards".
- Paulus ex Festo p. 43 and 55 L; Servius Aen. I 8; Plutarch Romulus 29; Quaestiones Romanae, 87; Ovid Fasti II 477
- Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Antiquitates Romanae, II 50, 3; Servius Aen.I 17; Paul. ex Fest. s.v. Curiales menses p.56 L.
- E. Paratore-R. Verdière "Varron avait raison" L'Antiquite Classique 62 I 1973 p. 49-63; J. Poucet Recherces sur la legende sabine des origines de Rome p.322
- R. Schilling "Ianus dieu intrducteur, dieu des passages" above; D. P. Harmon "Religion in Latin Elegists" in ANRW 1986 p. 1971
- G. Dumézil Iuno Sospita Mater Regina in Eranos 52 1954 p. 105-119 partic. p. 116 n. 3.
- V. Basanoff, Junon falisque et ses cultes à Rome p. 110-141; Cicero de Domo Sua 38. 101; V. Basanoff Les dieux des Romains p. 151-152; Paulus-Festus s.v. curiales menses p. 56 L
- etymonline: 'money' https://www.etymonline.com/word/money
- J. GagÄ "Matronalia" p. 80-81; Y. Roe D'Albret Recherches sur la prise de Véies et sur Iuno Regina in Annuaire de l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes IV 1975-6 p. 1093-1103
- G. Dumerzil & Udo Strutynsky Camillus; a study of Indoeuropean religion as Roman history 1980 Univ. of California Press p. 129 ff.
- Horace Carmen Saeculare; E. Fraenkel Horace Oxford 1957 chapt. 7; G.B. Pighi De ludis saecularibus populi Romani Quiritium Pubbl. dell' Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Serie 5 35 Milano 1941 p. 107-119; p. 201-221
- Luisa Banti "Il culto del cosiddetto tempio di Apollo a Veii ed il problema delle triadi etrusco-italiche" in Studi Etruschi 17 1943 p. 187-224.
- Ugo Bianchi Disegno storico del culto capitolino nell'Italia romana e nelle province dell' Impero Accademia dei Lincei. Memorie. Serie VIII 2 1949 p. 317-415
- G. Dumézil Myth et Epopée III: part III chapt. 1 Paris 1973; La religion romaine archaïque Paris 1974 part II chapt. 1; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 276 n. 31
- Daniel P. Harmon "Religion in the Latin Elegists" in ANRW 1986 p. 1971-3: K. Latte Römische Religionsgeschichte Munich 1960 p. 168; Ovid Amores III 13; Festus s.v. Curritis p. 55 L
- G. Dumézil La religion romaine archaique Paris 1974 part II chapt. 1. 2; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 266
- G. Bendinelli "Monumenti Lanuvini" in Monumenti dei Lincei 27 1921 p. 294-370; Properce IV 8, 3 defines the annosus draco old dragon the tutela of Lanuvium.
- D. P. Harmon above citing G. Dumézil Archaic Roman Religion p. 586: the Welsh king Math could live only if he kept his feet on the lap of a virgin, except at wartime.
- A. Brelich "Vesta" Albae Vigiliae n. s. 7 Zurich 1949 p. 48-57: D. P. Harmon above; R.E.A. Palmer above p. 38.
- M. Renard "Iuno Covella" Annales de l'Institut de Philologie Orientale et Slave 12 1952 p. 401-8, esp. p. 408; Macrobius Saturnalia I 15, 18.
- Cicero De natura deorum I 29, 82: "At non-est talis Argia nec Romana Iuno. Ergo alia species Iunonis Argivis alia Lanuvinis".
- Claudius Helianus De natura animalium XI 16: "...και ÎÏει ÏληÏίον νεÏν ÎÏÎ±Ï ÎÏγολίδοÏ".
- A. Pasqualini "Diomede nel Lazio e le tradizioni leggendarie sulla fondazione di Lanuvio" in MEFRA 110 1998 2 p. 672 n. 59 with bibliography.
- G. Pugliese Carratelli "Culti e dottrine religiose in Magna Gaecia" in La parola del Passato 20 1965 p. 1-ff.; also other works by the same author, Jean Berard and Mario Torelli cited below at note n. 164.
- G. Dumézil "Déesses latines et mythes vediques. III Fortuna Primigenia" in Coll. Latomus 25 1956 p. 71-78.
- á¹g-Veda X 72, 4-5; G. Dumézil above and Mariages indo-européens p. 311-312: "Of Aditi Daksa was born, and of Daksa Aditi, o Daksa, she who is your daughter".
- R. Schilling "Janus dieu introducteur, dieu des passages" in Melanges d'Archeologie et d' Histoire 1960 p. 91-131; Ovid Fasti I 103-139.
- R. Maurenbrecher's reading, (after Schilling, above): "1.Divom patrem canite, divom deum supplicate; 2.Patulci cosmis. Es duonus Sancus Ianius, es duonus Cerus es Ianeus; 3.Potissimum meliosum recum; 4.Ianituos".
- Macrobius above, quotes Varro Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum V, as saying that Janus had twelve altars, one for each month.
- Nicola Turchi La religione di Roma antica Bologna 1939 p. 99 ff.; Marcel Renard Aspects anciens de Janus et de Junon in Revue belge de philologie 31 1953 p. 13; G. Capdeville above p.430.
- R. D. Woodard Indoeuropean Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult Chicago 2006 p. 220 ff.; G. Dury Moyaers et M. Renard above p.188
- Ephemer. Epigraph. IX 605: "Herculi San[cto] et Iunoni Sospit[i]". The inscription is dated to the 2nd century BC.
- M. Renard above p. 617-8: the process would be parallel to that of the myth of Eros, originally the primordial god who fathered Aphrodite who later became the child of the goddess.
- Roscher Lexicon s. v. Iunones; W. Hastings, Sebin Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Edinborough 1913 s. v. Family p. 797; K. Latte Römische Religionsgeschichte Munich 1960 p. 105.
- G. Dumézil La religion romaine archaique part II chapt. 4, It. tr. p. 317 remarks primigenius does not mean the first among brothers, but the first absolute of all generations.
- Cicero De Divinatione I 36; Julius Obsequens 58; Vergil Aen. V 94-6; Aulus Gellius VI 1, 3, where however he is rather Jupiter himself.
- G. Dumézil La religion romaine archaïque Paris 1977 part II chapt. 4; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 316-8.
- Gellius XIII 23, 2 and 18; Festus p. 221 L; Ennius Annales 104 "...Nerienem Mavortis et Herem..." .
- At Perusia, Cortona, Siena, Populonia, Visentium, even more in southern Etruria at Veii, Falerii, Tarquinia, Gravisca, Caerae, Pyrgi: M. Renard "Iuno Historia" above p. 152; L. Ross Taylor Local Cults in Etruria p. 85.
- S. Weinstock "Martianus Capella and the Cosmic System of the Etruscans" in Journal of Roman Studies 36 1946 p. 127
- Varro Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum 1, fr. 23 Cardauns apud Tertullian Ad Nationes II 2, 15: fr. 36 C apud Augustin de Civitate Dei IV 23; 16 fr. 240 C apud Tertullian above II 12, 18; Macrobius Saturnalia I 10, 20.
- G. Capdeville "Les dieux de Martianus Capella" in Revue de l' Histoire des Religions 213 3 1996 p. 250-300, especially p. 290-1.
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