Who was Nectanebo II and what is his primary historical significance?

Nectanebo II was the last native ruler of ancient Egypt and the third and final pharaoh of the Thirtieth Dynasty. His reign, from 358 to approximately 340 BC, marks the end of native Egyptian rule before foreign conquest.

What was Nectanebo II's Egyptian name and what does it mean?

Nectanebo II's Egyptian name was Nakht-hor-hebyt, which translates to "victorious is Horus of Hebyt."

How did Egypt regain independence before Nectanebo II's reign?

Egypt had regained its independence in 404 BC after being conquered by the Achaemenid Empire in 525 BC. Pharaoh Hakor had also negotiated a treaty with Athens and successfully resisted Persian aggression for three years prior to Nectanebo II's rise.

What was the political situation of Egypt leading up to Nectanebo II's ascension?

Following the Achaemenid conquest and subsequent regaining of independence, Egypt faced ongoing Persian aggression. Pharaoh Hakor had secured a treaty with Athens, and Nectanebo II's predecessor, Teos, was preparing for war against foreign invaders when Nectanebo II accompanied him on campaign.

How did Nectanebo II come to power?

Nectanebo II ascended to the throne in 358 BC. He accompanied his uncle, Teos, on a military campaign and was in charge of the *machimoi* (a class of Egyptian soldiers). When Teos imposed unpopular taxes and seized temple property, Nectanebo II gained the support of the Egyptian people, leading to Teos fleeing the country.

What internal challenge did Nectanebo II face shortly after his rise to power?

Shortly after his ascension, Nectanebo II contended with an unnamed pretender to the throne from Mendes, who had proclaimed himself pharaoh. This revolt was likely led by a descendant of Nepherites I.

Who supported Nectanebo II during the revolt against the pretender from Mendes?

Nectanebo II was supported by the Spartan military leader Agesilaus, who had been asked by Teos to aid Egypt. Agesilaus's loyalty and military support were crucial in helping Nectanebo II secure his position as pharaoh.

What role did religion play in Nectanebo II's domestic policy?

Religion was a significant aspect of Nectanebo II's domestic policy. He officiated at the funeral of an Apis bull, added decorations to Apis temples, built temples for deities like Khnum and Amun, and dedicated a diorite *naos* to Anhur-Shu. He also supported the Buchis cult and issued a decree protecting sacred mountains.

What were some of the significant building projects undertaken by Nectanebo II?

Nectanebo II was an extensive builder, undertaking projects across Egypt. Notable examples include a temple to Khnum at Abu (Elephantine), a temple to Amun at Sekhtam (Siwa Oasis), and a diorite *naos* dedicated to Anhur-Shu. He also significantly contributed to the temple at Sebennytos.

How did Nectanebo II defend Egypt against the Achaemenid Empire?

Nectanebo II successfully defended Egypt against Achaemenid attempts to reconquer the country, notably repelling an invasion around 351 BC. He achieved this by building a new army, employing Greek mercenaries, and securing victories with the help of generals like Diophantus of Athens and Lamius of Sparta.

What was the outcome of the Achaemenid invasion led by Artaxerxes III in 343 BC?

Despite Nectanebo II's efforts, including a large army and defensive fortifications, he was ultimately defeated by Artaxerxes III in 343 BC. Artaxerxes III entered Memphis, installed a satrap, and incorporated Egypt back into the Achaemenid Empire.

What happened to Nectanebo II after his defeat by Artaxerxes III?

After his defeat, Nectanebo II fled south, first to Upper Egypt and then to Nubia, where he was granted asylum. He reportedly made an attempt to regain the throne with the help of Khabash.

What is the significance of the reliefs from Nectanebo II's temples at Sebennytos?

The reliefs from the temples Nectanebo II built and improved at Sebennytos left a distinctive mark on the art of the subsequent Ptolemaic Kingdom, influencing its artistic style.

What is known about Nectanebo II's portraits?

Only one annotated portrait of Nectanebo II is definitively known: a greywacke statue in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, depicting him before the god Horus. Other attributed portraits include heads in quartzite, basalt, and granite found in various museums.

What is the story surrounding Nectanebo II's sarcophagus found by Napoleon's forces?

Napoleon's troops discovered a seven-ton sarcophagus in Alexandria. Initially believed to be Alexander the Great's tomb, deciphering the hieroglyphics revealed it contained Nectanebo II's cartouche. It was likely created for him but remained unused as he fled to Nubia. The sarcophagus was later taken to the British Museum.

What is the apocryphal tale from the Alexander Romance concerning Nectanebo II?

The Alexander Romance tells a story where Nectanebo II, after his defeat, disguised himself as the god Amun and seduced Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great. According to this legend, Nectanebo II was Alexander's biological father.

How did the legend of Nectanebo II influence European culture?

The legend of Nectanebo, particularly his role in the Alexander Romance, had a significant impact on European culture up to the Renaissance and beyond. It influenced art and literature, and he was even depicted in the Sola Busca tarot cards.

What is the "Nectanebo and Petesis" tale, and what does it suggest about Egypt's fate?

The "Nectanebo and Petesis" tale, preserved in a Greek fragment, describes the god Anhur being angry with Nectanebo II over an unfinished temple in Sebennytos. The story involves a sculptor named Petesis who bungles the temple completion after getting drunk, and this narrative is suggested to be a preface to the fall of Egypt.

What was Nectanebo II's reign period?

Nectanebo II reigned from 358 BC to approximately 340 BC.

Who was Nectanebo II's father?

Nectanebo II's father was Tjahapimu.

What was the significance of the "Mysterious Mountains" in Abydos during Nectanebo II's reign?

Nectanebo II issued a decree forbidding stone quarrying in the area known as the "Mysterious Mountains" in Abydos, indicating a respect for or protection of this sacred site.

What was the role of Mentor of Rhodes in Nectanebo II's downfall?

Mentor of Rhodes, a former servant of Nectanebo II, betrayed him by colluding with the Persians. Mentor's knowledge of Egypt's eastern border and his contingent of Greek mercenaries were crucial to Artaxerxes III's successful invasion.

What evidence suggests Nectanebo II's extensive building activities?

Evidence for Nectanebo II's building activities includes his name found at numerous religious centers across Egypt, such as Heliopolis, Athribis, and Bubastis, and his most extensive work at Sebennytos. His piety and building efforts are considered comparable to those of great kings from the New Kingdom.

What is the meaning of Nectanebo II's Golden Horus name?

Nectanebo II's Golden Horus name was Smn-hpw, which means "Creator of Laws."

What was the significance of Nectanebo II being acclaimed "Nectanebo the divine falcon"?

Following his victory against the Achaemenids around 351 BC, Nectanebo II was acclaimed "Nectanebo the divine falcon" by his people, and cults were established in his name, suggesting a deification or elevated status.

What is the context of the Alexander Romance and Nectanebo's alleged role in it?

The Alexander Romance is a pseudo-historical text that includes an apocryphal tale about Nectanebo II. In this story, Nectanebo, disguised as the god Amun, fathered Alexander the Great with Olympias, the mother of Alexander.

What is the significance of the Sola Busca tarot in relation to Nectanebo II?

Nectanebo II, under the name Natanabo, is featured in the Sola Busca tarot deck, alongside other figures from the Alexander Romance like Alexander, Philip of Macedon, and Olympias, reflecting the legend's cultural impact.

What was the nature of the Egyptian gold staters issued by Nectanebo II?

The Egyptian gold staters issued by Nectanebo II featured hieroglyphs on the reverse side that meant "good gold." This was represented by a pectoral necklace (meaning "gold") crossing over a windpipe and heart (meaning "good").

What was the fate of Nectanebo II's sarcophagus after it was surrendered to the British?

After being surrendered to the British following Napoleon's campaign, Nectanebo II's sarcophagus was taken to London and is now housed in the British Museum.

What specific decree did Nectanebo II issue regarding stone quarrying?

Nectanebo II issued a decree that prohibited stone quarrying in the area known as the "Mysterious Mountains" in Abydos.

What was the Egyptian name for Nectanebo II's Praenomen, and what does it mean?

Nectanebo II's Praenomen was Snedjemibre Setepenanhur, which means "Pleasing to the Heart is Ra, chosen of Onuris."

What was the Egyptian name for Nectanebo II's Nomen, and what does it mean?

Nectanebo II's Nomen was Nakhthorhebyt, meaning "Strong is Horus of Hebyt, the beloved of Hathor."

What is the significance of Nectanebo II's reign in relation to Egyptian independence?

Nectanebo II's reign is significant because he was the last native Egyptian pharaoh to rule an independent Egypt before its incorporation into the Achaemenid Empire.

What role did Agesilaus play in Nectanebo II's rise to power?

Agesilaus, the Spartan military leader, supported Nectanebo II during a revolt against a pretender to the throne. Agesilaus's loyalty and military support were crucial in helping Nectanebo II secure his position as pharaoh.

What was the approximate birth year of Nectanebo II?

Nectanebo II was born around 380 BC.

What is the significance of the greywacke statue of Nectanebo II in the Metropolitan Museum of Art?

This statue is significant because it is the only known annotated portrait of Nectanebo II, showing him standing before the god Horus and incorporating hieroglyphs that represent his name and titles.

What is the meaning of the hieroglyphs on the reverse of Nectanebo II's gold staters?

The hieroglyphs on the reverse of Nectanebo II's gold staters translate to "good gold," represented by the symbols for "gold" and "good."

What is the argument that Nectanebo II's sarcophagus might have housed Alexander the Great's remains?

The argument suggests that Alexander's body was temporarily entombed in Memphis, a location where Nectanebo II also built a temple. It's proposed that Nectanebo's sarcophagus might have been vacant when Alexander's body was placed there, and later moved with it. Additionally, a fragment found in Venice is claimed to be a perfect fit for the sarcophagus.

How was Nectanebo II's sarcophagus used after its discovery in Alexandria?

After its discovery in Alexandria, holes were drilled into the sarcophagus, and it was used as a ritual bath during the period of Islamic rule in the city.

What was the Greek form of Nectanebo II's name?

The Greek form of Nectanebo II's name was Nectanebos.

What was the name of the Athenian general who returned home with his mercenaries during Teos's preparations for war?

The Athenian general was Chabrias.

What was the name of the Spartan military leader who supported Nectanebo II during his rise to power?

The Spartan military leader was Agesilaus.

What was the name of the former servant who betrayed Nectanebo II to the Achaemenids?

The former servant who betrayed Nectanebo II was Mentor of Rhodes.

What is the significance of Nectanebo II's reign in relation to the Ptolemaic Kingdom?

Egyptian artists during Nectanebo II's reign developed a specific style in reliefs that left a distinctive mark on the art of the subsequent Ptolemaic Kingdom.

What was the approximate date of Artaxerxes III's invasion of Egypt, which led to Nectanebo II's defeat?

Artaxerxes III invaded Egypt in the winter of 343 BC.

What was the estimated size of Nectanebo II's army during the conflict with Artaxerxes III?

Nectanebo II's army consisted of approximately 60,000 Egyptians, 20,000 Libu, and an equal number of Greek mercenaries.

In the "Nectanebo and Petesis" tale, which deity was angry about an unfinished temple, and where was it located?

In the "Nectanebo and Petesis" tale, the god Anhur was angry with Nectanebo II because of his unfinished temple in Sebennytos.

What is the meaning of Nectanebo II's Golden Horus name, Smn-hpw?

Smn-hpw, Nectanebo II's Golden Horus name, means "Creator of Laws."

Who was Nectanebo II's predecessor on the throne?

Nectanebo II's predecessor was Teos.

Nectanebo Ii Wiki: Nectanebo II: The Last Pharaoh's Echo

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The Reign of Nectanebo II

Final Native Ruler

Nectanebo II was the third and final native pharaoh of the Thirtieth Dynasty, reigning from 358 to approximately 340 BC. His rule marked the end of an era for native Egyptian sovereignty before the Achaemenid reconquest.

Religious Patronage

Nectanebo II demonstrated significant engagement with Egyptian religious practices. He officiated at the funeral of an Apis bull in Memphis and initiated construction or renovation projects at over a hundred Egyptian sites. Notable sanctuaries include those dedicated to Khnum at Abu and Amun at Sekhtam. He also commissioned a diorite naos for Anhur-Shu and fostered the popularity of the Buchis cult.

Royal Titulary

His full royal titulary included names reflecting his divine connection and authority:

Horus Name: Mrj-t𓄿wj (Merytawy) - "Beloved by the Two Lands"
Nebty Name: Shrw-jb-n𓄿rw (Shrw-jb-n𓄿rw) - "One who contents the Heart of Gods"
Golden Horus Name: Smn-hpw (Smn-hpw) - "Creator of Laws"
Praenomen: Snedjemibre Setepenanhur - "Pleasing to the Heart is Ra, chosen of Onuris"
Nomen: N𓄿bt-𓄿r-n-𓄿bt mrj 𓄿r-𓄿r (Nakhthorhebit Meryhathor) - "Strong is Horus of Hebyt, the beloved of Hathor"

Ascension and Consolidation

Securing the Throne

Following Egypt's brief independence after the Achaemenid conquest of 525 BC, Nectanebo II ascended the throne in 358 BC. His predecessor, Teos, had initiated military preparations against the Achaemenid Empire. Nectanebo II accompanied Teos on this campaign, commanding the machimoi (native Egyptian soldiers).

Internal Strife

Teos's attempts to finance the war through taxes and temple confiscations led to widespread resentment. This discontent paved the way for Nectanebo's rise. When Teos fled to the Achaemenid court, Nectanebo faced a rival claimant from Mendes. With the support of the Spartan leader Agesilaus, Nectanebo successfully quelled the revolt in late 360 BC, solidifying his rule.

Defending Against Persia

Nectanebo II's reign was largely defined by his efforts to maintain Egypt's independence against the Achaemenid Empire. He successfully repelled Persian invasion attempts, notably in approximately 351 BC, with the aid of Greek generals Diophantus of Athens and Lamius of Sparta. This victory earned him the acclamation "Nectanebo the divine falcon" from his people.

Campaigns and Conflict

The Achaemenid Threat

The Achaemenid Empire repeatedly sought to reconquer Egypt. After initial attempts in 385, 383, and 373 BC, Artaxerxes III launched a major campaign in the winter of 343 BC. Nectanebo's army, comprising 60,000 Egyptians, 20,000 Libyans, and numerous Greek mercenaries, was ultimately defeated.

Shifting Alliances

Nectanebo supported the Phoenician rebellion against the Persians in 345/44 BC, dispatching 4,000 Greek mercenaries led by Mentor of Rhodes. However, Mentor's betrayal, in collusion with the Sidonian king Tennes, significantly weakened Egypt's defenses against Artaxerxes III's advancing forces.

Exile and Final Stand

Following his defeat, Nectanebo II fled south to Upper Egypt and then to Nubia, where he found asylum. Despite his exile, he later made a futile attempt to regain the throne, possibly with the assistance of Khabash. His ultimate fate remains unknown.

Artistic and Architectural Legacy

Extensive Building Programs

Despite his turbulent reign, Nectanebo II was a prolific builder. His construction activities across Egypt rivaled those of many New Kingdom pharaohs. His name appears at major religious centers, indicating a widespread impact on temples and sanctuaries.

Influence on Ptolemaic Art

The reliefs from temples constructed or improved by Nectanebo II, particularly those at Sebennytos (Behbeit El Hagar), left a distinctive mark on the artistic style of the subsequent Ptolemaic Kingdom. This suggests a lasting cultural influence beyond his reign.

Royal Portraits

Surviving portraits attributed to Nectanebo II are rare. Notable examples include a small greywacke statue in the Metropolitan Museum of Art depicting him before Horus, a quartzite head in the University of Pennsylvania Museum, a basalt head in Alexandria, and a granite head in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. These works provide valuable insights into the royal iconography of his period.

Notable Artifacts

Gold Stater

Coins minted during Nectanebo II's reign, such as gold staters, often featured Egyptian hieroglyphs signifying "good gold" (nebu) and "good" (nefer). These artifacts reflect the economic and symbolic aspects of his rule.

Sarcophagus in London

A significant artifact is Nectanebo II's large sarcophagus, originally discovered by Napoleon's forces in Alexandria. After the Battle of Alexandria, it was surrendered to the British and is now housed in the British Museum. Initially believed to be Alexander the Great's tomb, deciphered hieroglyphs confirmed it belonged to Nectanebo II. It was likely created for him but remained unused as he fled into exile.

Ritual Bath Vessel

The sarcophagus later served a different purpose. During Islamic rule in Alexandria, holes were drilled into it, transforming it into a ritual bath. This demonstrates the object's enduring presence and adaptation across different historical periods.

Enduring Legends

The Alexander Romance

A prominent legend, detailed in the pseudo-historical Alexander Romance, posits that Nectanebo II, disguised as a magician, fathered Alexander the Great with Olympias, Philip II of Macedon's wife. This myth, which portrayed Nectanebo with dragon-like features, held significant appeal in Egypt, offering a sense of continuity and divine lineage amidst foreign rule.

Dream of Nectanebo

Another tale, preserved in a Greek fragment, describes Nectanebo's prophetic dream concerning the goddess Isis and his unfinished temple at Sebennytos. The narrative involves the sculptor Petesis and highlights the mythological and literary traditions associated with the pharaoh.

Cultural Resonance

The legend of Nectanebo's role in Alexander's conception left a lasting impact on European culture, extending into the Renaissance. His figure appears in works like the Sola Busca tarot, where he is interpreted as a celestial messenger symbolizing invulnerability and potency.

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Nectanebo II: The Last Pharaoh's Echo

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

The Reign of Nectanebo II 🏛️

👑 Final Native Ruler

🕌 Religious Patronage

📜 Royal Titulary

Ascension and Consolidation 👑

👑 Securing the Throne

💰 Internal Strife

🛡️ Defending Against Persia

Campaigns and Conflict ⚔️

⚔️ The Achaemenid Threat

🤝 Shifting Alliances

🏃 Exile and Final Stand

Artistic and Architectural Legacy 🏺

🏛️ Extensive Building Programs

🎨 Influence on Ptolemaic Art

🗿 Royal Portraits

Notable Artifacts 💎

💰 Gold Stater

🗿 Sarcophagus in London

🏺 Ritual Bath Vessel

Enduring Legends 📜

🔮 The Alexander Romance

📜 Dream of Nectanebo

🃏 Cultural Resonance

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

The Reign of Nectanebo II

Final Native Ruler

Religious Patronage

Royal Titulary

Ascension and Consolidation

Securing the Throne

Internal Strife

Defending Against Persia

Campaigns and Conflict

The Achaemenid Threat

Shifting Alliances

Exile and Final Stand

Artistic and Architectural Legacy

Extensive Building Programs

Influence on Ptolemaic Art

Royal Portraits

Notable Artifacts

Gold Stater

Sarcophagus in London

Ritual Bath Vessel

Enduring Legends

The Alexander Romance

Dream of Nectanebo

Cultural Resonance

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice