What is the Median language, and what is its linguistic classification?

Median, also referred to as Medean or Medic, is an extinct language belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It was spoken by the ancient Medes.

To which specific subgroup of the Iranian language family does Median belong?

Median belongs to the Northwestern branch of the Iranian language family. This classification places it alongside other languages such as Kurdish, Old Azeri, Talysh, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Zaza–Gorani, and Baluchi.

How is the Median language primarily attested in historical and linguistic records?

The Median language is primarily attested through numerous loanwords found within Old Persian texts. Direct documentation of Median grammar or extensive vocabulary is scarce.

What is known about the grammatical structure of the Median language?

According to the available information, nothing is known about the specific grammar of the Median language.

What phonological similarities does Median share with other ancient Iranian languages?

Median shares important phonological isoglosses, which are defining characteristics of sound patterns, with Avestan. This distinguishes it phonologically from Old Persian.

What was the potential role of Median during the period of Median rule in western Iran?

During the short-lived period of Median rule, it is believed that Median likely served, to some extent, as the official Iranian language in western Iran.

Are there any preserved documents written in the Median language from its historical period?

No documents dating specifically to the Median era have been preserved, and the script that might have been used for such texts is also unknown.

What is the significance of the inscription found in Media from the Neo-Assyrian Empire period?

The only inscription found in Media from the pre-Achaemenid period, dating to the time of Neo-Assyrian control, is a cuneiform text written in Akkadian by Assyrian rulers. Notably, this inscription does not contain any Median names.

What does the Median word *čiθra-* mean, and what related terms are derived from it?

The Median word *čiθra-* means "origin." It appears in related forms such as *čiθrabṛzana-* (meaning "exalting his linage"), *čiθramiθra-* ("having mithraic origin"), and *čiθraspāta-* ("having a brilliant army").

What is the Median term for "paradise", and what is its linguistic significance?

The Median word for "paradise" is *paridaiza*. This term is significant as it is the etymological root of the English word "paradise."

What does the Median word *spaka-* signify, and how is it referenced by Herodotus?

The Median word *spaka-* means "dog." Herodotus specifically identified *spaka-* (or the Greek form *spakha*, referring to a female dog) as a Median term, distinguishing it from Persian.

Is there a proposed linguistic link between the Median word for 'dog' and the Russian word for 'dog'?

Yes, the Median word *spaka-* (dog) is suggested as a possible source for the Slavic Russian word *sobaka*, which also means "dog." Similar forms are found in modern Iranian languages like Talyshi and Zaza.

What is the meaning of the Median word *vazṛka-*?

The Median word *vazṛka-* translates to "great," comparable in meaning to the Western Persian word *bozorg*.

What does the Median word *viśpa-* mean, and in what contexts does it appear?

The Median word *viśpa-* means "all," a meaning also found in Avestan. It appears as a component in Median terms like *viśpafryā* ("dear to all") and *viśpatarva-* ("vanquishing all").

What is the Median word for 'realm' or 'kingship', and how does it relate to the term 'satrap'?

The Median word for 'realm' or 'kingship' is *xšaθra-*. The Greek term *satrapēs* (satrap) is believed to derive from a Median form of this word, rather than directly from the Old Persian form.

What are the meanings of the Median words *zūra-* and *zūrakara-*?

The Median words *zūra-* and *zūrakara-* mean "evil" and "evil-doer," respectively.

How is the identity of the Medes and their language primarily distinguished in historical records?

The distinction between the Medes and other groups, particularly the Persians, is mainly noted in foreign sources, such as mid-9th-century BCE Assyrian cuneiform texts and the writings of Herodotus.

Is the native name for the Median language known to modern scholars?

No, the native name for the Median language is not known, similar to the situation with many other Old Iranian languages.

What names did the Assyrians use to refer to the Medes and Persians?

The Assyrians, who ruled over both groups from the 9th to 7th centuries BCE, referred to the Medes as *Mada* and the Persians as *Parshumash*.

What is the hypothesized linguistic relationship between Median and Old Persian within the Achaemenid Empire?

Median is presumed to have functioned as a substrate language beneath Old Persian in the Achaemenid Empire. This means Median likely influenced Old Persian, possibly being replaced by it over time.

According to Prods Oktor Skjærvø, how can Median linguistic elements be identified in Old Persian texts?

Prods Oktor Skjærvø explains that Median elements are identifiable because they did not undergo the specific linguistic developments of Old Persian. These elements often appear in personal or geographical names, religious vocabulary, and sometimes as alternative forms to Old Persian words, such as *asa* (Old Persian) versus *aspa* (Median) for 'horse'.

Which scholars have identified potential Median loanwords in Old Persian?

Roland Kent, through comparative phonology, identified words like *taxma* ('brave') as potential Median borrowings in Old Persian. Diakonoff also listed *paridaiza* ('paradise'), *vazraka* ('great'), and *xshayathiya* ('royal') as possible Median contributions.

What specific observation did Herodotus make regarding the Median word *spaka*?

Herodotus, in his *Histories*, noted that *spaka* was the Median word for a female dog.

What did Strabo observe about the linguistic similarities between peoples in Ariana, Media, and Bactria?

Strabo noted in the 1st century BCE that the inhabitants of Ariana, Persia, Media, and northern Bactria and Sogdiana spoke "nearly the same language," indicating significant linguistic relatedness.

What are the 'fahlaviyat' compositions, and how do they relate to Median dialects?

The 'fahlaviyat' are verses composed in the old dialects of the Pahla/Fahla regions of northwestern Iran. They preserve traces of later Median dialects (distinct from the ancient Median language) and show linguistic affinities with Parthian, though influenced by Persian.

How did the term 'fahla' come to be associated with Media?

The term 'fahla', derived from Middle Persian *pahlaw*, denoted Media from late Arsacid times. This usage reflects an earlier pre-Sassanid association of *pahlaw* with Parthia, which had expanded to include much of ancient Media during the Arsacid period.

What is the theory proposed by G. Windfuhr regarding modern Iranian languages in ancient Media?

G. Windfuhr suggests that modern Iranian languages spoken in the regions of ancient Media and Atropatene are essentially 'Median' dialects. He believes they continue the ancient local Median language and exhibit similarities to 'Medisms' found in Old Persian.

What linguistic affinities do the surviving languages related to Median dialects share with Parthian?

Languages considered survivals of Median dialects possess certain linguistic affinities with Parthian, suggesting a close historical relationship between these language groups.

In which geographical area are the most notable New Median languages and dialects found?

The most notable New Median languages and dialects are spoken in central Iran, with a particular concentration noted around the city of Kashan.

What is the classification of Median within the Indo-European language family tree?

Median is classified as Indo-European -> Indo-Iranian -> Iranian -> Western Iranian -> Northwestern Iranian -> Median.

What writing system is tentatively associated with the Median language?

The text tentatively associates Linear Elamite with the Median language, indicated by a question mark, suggesting uncertainty about its use.

What are the designated language codes for Median?

The ISO 639-3 code for Median is 'xme', and it is also listed with the code 'xme' in The Linguist List database.

Is the Median language recognized in the Glottolog database?

No, the Glottolog database lists 'None' for the Median language, indicating it is not specifically cataloged or classified within that resource.

What is the geographical origin of the Median language?

The Median language is native to the region known as Media, which is situated within the historical area of Ancient Iran.

Which ethnic group is identified as speakers of the Median language?

The Median language was spoken by the Medes, an ancient ethnic group.

What is the estimated time frame for the existence of the Median language?

The Median language is estimated to have been spoken during the era from approximately 500 BCE to 500 CE.

What alternative names are used for the Median language?

Alternative names for the Median language include Medean and Medic.

Besides Old Persian, what other modern languages are related to the Northwestern Iranian branch that Median belongs to?

Other languages in the Northwestern Iranian branch include Kurdish, Old Azeri, Talysh, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Zaza–Gorani, and Baluchi.

What is the *Ganj Nameh*, and who commissioned its inscriptions?

The *Ganj Nameh*, meaning "treasure epistle," is located in Ecbatana and features inscriptions by Darius I and his son Xerxes I. While not directly about the Median language, it relates to the historical region.

What does the Median word *farnah* represent?

The Median word *farnah* represents "divine glory." It has a corresponding term, *khvarenah*, in the Avestan language.

What is the origin of the English word 'paradise'?

The English word 'paradise' originates from the Median word *paridaiza*.

What is the Middle Persian continuation of the Median word *xšaθra-*?

The Median word *xšaθra-* (meaning 'realm' or 'kingship') continued into Middle Persian as *šahr*, which means 'land, country, or city'.

What linguistic evidence supports the theory that the Greek term 'satrap' originates from Median?

The Greek term 'satrap' is thought to derive from a Median form of the Old Iranian word for 'realm' or 'kingship' (*xšaθra-*), rather than directly from the Old Persian form.

What does the term 'Medisms' refer to in the context of Old Persian?

'Medisms' refers to linguistic elements, such as words or phonetic features, found in Old Persian that are believed to have originated from or been influenced by the Median language.

What is the linguistic argument for considering modern languages in central Iran as descendants of Median?

Linguist G. Windfuhr argues that modern Iranian languages in central Iran and Azarbaijan are 'Median' dialects, continuing the ancient language and showing similarities to 'Medisms' in Old Persian.

How is the term 'fahla' historically linked to the region of Media?

The term 'fahla', derived from Middle Persian *pahlaw*, was used to denote Media from late Arsacid times. This usage reflects an earlier pre-Sassanid period when *pahlaw* referred to Parthia, a region that had expanded to include much of ancient Media.

What is the relationship between Median and other Northwestern Iranian languages?

Median is classified within the Northwestern branch of the Iranian language family, which also includes languages like Kurdish, Talysh, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Zaza–Gorani, and Baluchi, indicating a shared linguistic heritage.

What specific inscription from the Neo-Assyrian period in Media is mentioned, and what is its linguistic relevance?

A cuneiform inscription in Akkadian, created by Assyrian rulers possibly in the 8th century BCE, is the only pre-Achaemenid inscription found in Media from the Neo-Assyrian period. Its relevance is that it contains no Median names, despite being found in the Median region.

What does the term 'Medean' or 'Medic' signify in relation to the language?

The terms 'Medean' and 'Medic' are alternative names for the Median language, emphasizing its connection to the ancient Medes.

What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes Median from Old Persian, according to the text?

Median is noted to share important phonological isoglosses with Avestan, rather than Old Persian, suggesting distinct sound pattern developments.

What specific Median words related to 'origin' and 'lineage' are mentioned?

The Median word *čiθra-* means 'origin,' and it appears in related terms like *čiθrabṛzana-* ('exalting his linage') and *čiθramiθra-* ('having mithraic origin').

Median Language Wiki: Median Language: Echoes of an Ancient Iranian Tongue

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Understanding Median

Ancient Tongue

Median was an extinct Iranian language spoken by the now extinct ancient Medes. It is classified within the Northwestern branch of the Iranian language family.

Linguistic Family

As part of the Indo-European family, Median sits within the Indo-Iranian, Iranian, and specifically the Western Iranian branches. It shares linguistic ancestry with many modern languages, including Kurdish, Talysh, Gilaki, and others.

Historical Context

The language is primarily associated with the region of Media in Ancient Iran. Its attested period spans roughly from 500 BCE to 500 CE, though its active use likely ceased much earlier.

Attestation and Evidence

Loanwords in Old Persian

Direct documentation of the Median language is scarce. Our primary knowledge comes from numerous loanwords found within the texts of Old Persian. These borrowings offer glimpses into its vocabulary and structure.

Phonological Links

While direct grammatical records are absent, Median shares important phonological features and isoglosses with Avestan, distinguishing it from Old Persian in certain sound developments.

Absence of Primary Sources

No original documents dating specifically to the Median period have been preserved. The script used for Median is also unknown. While cuneiform inscriptions exist from the region during the Neo-Assyrian Empire, they are in Akkadian and do not mention Median names.

Key Vocabulary

Median Lexicon

The following are words identified as being of Median origin, often preserved in other ancient Iranian languages or texts:

ciθra-: "origin". Appears in related terms like "exalting his linage" and "having mithraic origin".
farnah: Divine glory (cf. Avestan: khvarənah).
paridaiza: Paradise.
spaka-: "dog". Identified by Herodotus as Median, potentially influencing Slavic "sobaka".
vazraka-: "great" (cf. Western Persian bozorg).
vispa-: "all" (cf. Avestan). Appears in terms like "dear to all".
xšathra-: "realm; kingship" (cf. Middle Persian šahr). The Greek "satrap" likely derives from a Median form.
zura-: "evil" and zurakara-: "evil-doer".

Identity and Distinction

Assyrian and Greek Records

Distinctions between Medes and other groups like Persians are noted in external sources, such as mid-9th-century BCE Assyrian cuneiform texts and Herodotus's accounts. These sources differentiate the Medes as a distinct ethnolinguistic group.

Unknown Native Name

The native name for the Median language is not known, similar to other Old Iranian languages. It remains unclear whether the Medes themselves formally distinguished their language from those of other Iranian peoples.

Linguistic Substrate

Median is presumed to have functioned as a linguistic substrate for the official Old Persian used within the Achaemenid Empire. This influence is identifiable through Median forms appearing in Old Persian texts, particularly in names and vocabulary that did not undergo the same developments as Old Persian itself.

Linguistic Legacy

Modern Iranian Dialects

Modern Iranian languages spoken today in regions historically known as Media (like Azerbaijan and Central Iran) are considered by scholars like G. Windfuhr to be descendants or "Median dialects." These languages continue the linguistic traditions of Old Median and bear similarities to "Medisms" found in Old Persian.

Affinities with Parthian

The term "Pahlav/Fahlav," used in medieval Persian sources, refers to regional dialects from western Iran. While reflecting Parthian rule, Windfuhr suggests some of these also show influence from older Median dialects, exhibiting linguistic affinities with Parthian.

Survivals in Central Iran

Notable "New Median" languages and dialects are still spoken in central Iran, particularly in areas around Kashan, representing a continuation of the region's ancient linguistic landscape.

Language Details

Median
Medean, Medic
Native to	Media (region)
Region	Ancient Iran
Ethnicity	Medes
Era	500 BCE – 500 CE
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Iranian Western Iranian Northwestern Iranian Median
Dialects	Razi
Writing system	Linear Elamite?
Language codes
ISO 639-3	`xme`
Linguist List	`xme`
Glottolog	None

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References

(Hawkins 2010, "Greek and the Languages of Asia Minor to the Classical Period", p. 226)

(Gamkrelidze - Ivanov, 1995, "Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical..", p. 505)

(Fortson, IV 2009, "Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction", p. 419)

(YarShater 2007, "Encyclopaedia Iranica", p. 96)

Borjian, Habib, âMedian Dialects of Kashan,â Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 16, fasc. 1, 2011, pp. 38-48. [2].

A full list of references for this article are available at the Median language Wikipedia page

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This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional linguistic advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for consultation with qualified historical linguists or academic researchers. Always refer to primary sources and scholarly consensus for definitive information.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

Echoes of Media

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Understanding Median ℹ️

📜 Ancient Tongue

🌐 Linguistic Family

⏳ Historical Context

Attestation and Evidence 🔍

🗣️ Loanwords in Old Persian

👂 Phonological Links

🚫 Absence of Primary Sources

Key Vocabulary 📚

📖 Median Lexicon

Identity and Distinction 👤

🏛️ Assyrian and Greek Records

❓ Unknown Native Name

🔗 Linguistic Substrate

Linguistic Legacy 🌳

🌱 Modern Iranian Dialects

🤝 Affinities with Parthian

📍 Survivals in Central Iran

Language Details 🗂️

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📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Understanding Median

Ancient Tongue

Linguistic Family

Historical Context

Attestation and Evidence

Loanwords in Old Persian

Phonological Links

Absence of Primary Sources

Key Vocabulary

Median Lexicon

Identity and Distinction

Assyrian and Greek Records

Unknown Native Name

Linguistic Substrate

Linguistic Legacy

Modern Iranian Dialects

Affinities with Parthian

Survivals in Central Iran

Language Details

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice