What is the fundamental concept of meritocracy?

Meritocracy is a political system where economic goods and political power are distributed based on an individual's abilities and talents, rather than their wealth or social class. Advancement within such a system is determined by performance, typically measured through examinations or demonstrated achievements.

What is the etymological origin of the term 'meritocracy'?

The term 'meritocracy' is derived from the Latin word 'meritum,' meaning merit or worth, and the Ancient Greek suffix '-cracy,' meaning strength or power. This combination signifies a system of rule or power based on merit.

Who first used the term 'meritocracy' and in what context?

The term 'meritocracy' was first used by sociologist Alan Fox in 1956 in the journal *Socialist Commentary*. It was later popularized by sociologist Michael Dunlop Young in his 1958 satirical book, *The Rise of the Meritocracy*, where he used it pejoratively to describe a dystopian society.

How is merit typically defined in the most common conception of meritocracy?

The most common definition of meritocracy conceptualizes merit in terms of tested competency and ability, often measured by IQ scores or standardized achievement tests. In governmental and administrative contexts, merit refers to performance, intelligence, credentials, and education, usually determined through evaluations or examinations.

How has the usage of the term 'meritocracy' evolved since its coinage?

Although initially coined as a pejorative term by Michael Young, 'meritocracy' has seen its usage ameliorate over time. It is now often used to describe social systems where personal advancement and success are primarily based on individual capabilities and merits, frequently associated with the concept of equality of opportunity.

What is the core idea behind meritocracy in contrast to other systems?

Meritocracy challenges systems based on nepotism or hereditary aristocracy by asserting that positions and rewards should be earned through individual ability and effort, rather than inherited status or connections. It emphasizes a system where one's achievements and talents are the primary determinants of their standing.

What historical examples demonstrate early forms of meritocratic systems?

Early examples of administrative meritocracy can be traced back to Imperial China, particularly through its civil service examination system, which began as early as the sixth century BC. Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle also advocated for systems where the wisest or most capable should rule.

How did Imperial China implement a meritocratic system?

Imperial China, particularly during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed a complex bureaucracy staffed by officials selected through civil service examinations. This system allowed individuals from various backgrounds to enter government service based on their demonstrated merit, making education a key pathway for social mobility.

What role did Confucius play in the development of meritocratic ideas?

Confucius, the Chinese philosopher, advocated for the idea that rulers should govern based on merit rather than inherited status. This principle influenced the creation of the imperial examination system, which aimed to select officials based on their knowledge and virtue.

What were Plato's and Aristotle's views on meritocracy?

Plato, in *The Republic*, argued that the wisest individuals, or 'philosopher kings,' should rule, implying a meritocratic system based on wisdom. Aristotle also supported meritocracy, believing that governance should be based on virtue and ability.

How was meritocracy practiced in the Islamic world?

The succession rule in the Rashidun Caliphate was based on meritocracy, with prominent individuals choosing the caliph based on merit. Later, the Ottoman Empire utilized the *devshirme* system, recruiting Christian youths who were trained for military or administrative roles, with many rising to high positions like Grand Vizier based on their abilities.

What influence did the Chinese meritocratic system have on European powers?

The Chinese meritocratic civil service system influenced European powers, notably the British Empire in its administration of India during the seventeenth century. British colonial administrators, like Thomas Taylor Meadows, advocated for reforming the British civil service based on the Chinese model, emphasizing the advancement of talented individuals.

How did the United States move towards a merit-based civil service?

Following the assassination of President James A. Garfield in 1881 by a disappointed office seeker, the United States revamped its federal bureaucracy with the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883. This act mandated that government jobs be awarded based on merit through competitive exams, rather than political affiliation.

What was John Stuart Mill's proposal regarding meritocracy?

John Stuart Mill advocated for a form of meritocracy in *Considerations on Representative Government*, proposing plural voting where more educated voters would have more influence. He believed that education promoted wiser governance and that political institutions should recognize that some opinions hold more weight than others due to merit.

How does Singapore describe its approach to meritocracy?

Singapore officially describes meritocracy as one of its guiding principles for domestic public policy, emphasizing academic credentials as objective measures of merit. This approach aims to ensure advancement is based on talent and ability.

What criticisms have been raised regarding Singapore's meritocratic system?

Criticisms of Singapore's meritocracy suggest that it leads to increasing social stratification and the creation of an elite class from a narrow segment of the population. Concerns also exist about the growing emphasis on private tutoring, which can exacerbate existing inequalities.

What is Daniel Bell's perspective on meritocracy in Singapore?

Daniel Bell, a Singaporean academic, has noted that meritocracy in Singapore, while intended to be objective, can become an ideological tool for the ruling party. He suggests that by treating individuals with unequal backgrounds as superficially the same, it can mask and perpetuate fundamental societal inequalities.

How do contemporary defenders of Confucian political meritocracy justify hierarchies?

Defenders like Daniel Bell and Wang Pei argue that hierarchies are inevitable in complex societies and propose justifications for political hierarchies that do not rely on 'one person, one vote.' They cite raw efficiency and the need to serve the people's interests as reasons for competent individuals to hold power.

What is Tongdong Bai's argument regarding political inequality and meritocracy?

Tongdong Bai argues that political inequality can be justified if it benefits those who are materially worse off, drawing a parallel to John Rawls's concept of economic inequality. He suggests that a system combining meritocracy with democratic elements can lead to better governance that serves the common good.

What are some criticisms leveled against the concept of meritocracy by individuals like Michael Young and Michael Sandel?

Michael Young, who coined the term, used it pejoratively to critique a society stratified by intelligence and effort, viewing it as a dystopia. Michael Sandel argues that the meritocratic ideal has eroded solidarity, increased inequality, and led to elites disconnected from society, suggesting that meritocracy primarily serves as a justification for existing inequalities.

What is Daniel Markovits's critique of meritocracy in his book *The Meritocracy Trap*?

Daniel Markovits argues that meritocracy exacerbates social stratification, creating 'snowball inequality' where elite workers gain exclusive positions and advantages. This cycle disadvantages the middle class, leading to societal problems like increased 'deaths of despair,' while also placing immense pressure on the elite themselves.

What are the main criticisms regarding the practicality of implementing a meritocracy?

Key criticisms include the unclear definition of 'merit,' the reliability of assessment systems (like standardized tests, which may not capture crucial qualities), and the high cost of education required to compete, which can limit access to those with financial means. This creates a 'meritocracy gap' where true equality of opportunity is not achieved.

How does the 'Peter Principle' relate to meritocracy?

The 'Peter Principle' suggests that in a meritocratic system, individuals are promoted to their level of incompetence. As people rise based on demonstrated merit, they may eventually reach a position where their skills are insufficient to perform effectively, thus undermining the system's goal of competence.

What is the 'imagined meritocracy' concept proposed by Satoshi Araki?

Satoshi Araki's concept of 'imagined meritocracy' suggests that societies like the United States are often perceived as meritocratic, but in reality, educational credentials, rather than actual abilities, play a larger role in determining success. This leads to a situation where people believe the system is merit-based, when it is heavily influenced by credentialism.

What is the criticism that meritocracy can lead to 'deaths of despair'?

Some critics, like Daniel Markovits, argue that the intense competition and inequality fostered by meritocratic systems can lead to psychological distress, contributing to phenomena like the opioid epidemic and increased suicides, alcoholism, and mental health issues, collectively termed 'deaths of despair,' particularly among the middle class.

How does the concept of 'contributive justice' relate to criticisms of meritocracy?

Michael Sandel suggests moving beyond 'distributive justice' towards 'contributive justice' as a response to meritocracy's flaws. This involves creating conditions for everyone to contribute to the common good and receive recognition for it, rather than solely focusing on the distribution of rewards based on perceived merit.

What is the 'meritocracy gap' as described in the text?

The 'meritocracy gap' refers to the disparity between the ideal of a meritocratic system and its practical implementation. It highlights issues such as the high cost of education, the influence of inherited advantages, and the limitations of assessment methods, which prevent true equality of opportunity and fair competition.

What historical critique of meritocracy is associated with the 'princelings' in China?

The presence of 'princelings' (children of high-ranking officials) in the Chinese government is cited as a contradiction to meritocratic ideals of equal opportunity and promotion based on ability. Their significant numbers in government positions suggest that political connections and family background still heavily influence advancement, undermining the meritocratic principle.

What did Thomas Jefferson believe was necessary for a successful republic regarding merit?

Thomas Jefferson believed in a 'natural aristocracy' of talent and virtue, arguing that a successful republic must establish educational institutions to identify and train these individuals to rule. He saw merit, rather than wealth or inherited status, as the basis for leadership.

How did the Ashanti Empire under Osei Kwadwo practice meritocracy?

King Osei Kwadwo, ruling the Ashanti Empire from approximately 1764 to 1777, initiated a meritocratic system for appointing central officials. He prioritized appointing individuals based on their ability rather than their birth or lineage.

What is the 'achievement ideology' and how does it relate to meritocracy?

The 'achievement ideology' is a belief system that success is primarily determined by individual effort, talent, and merit. This ideology underpins the concept of meritocracy, suggesting that societal rewards should align with personal achievements.

What are some of the key criticisms of standardized testing in the context of meritocracy?

Critics argue that standardized tests are rigid and fail to accurately measure valuable qualities like initiative, creativity, judgment, and ethical reflection. They can only assess isolated skills and factual knowledge, which are considered less significant aspects of learning and potential.

How does the concept of 'equality of opportunity' relate to meritocracy?

Meritocracy is often seen as embodying or promoting equality of opportunity, the idea that everyone should have a fair chance to succeed based on their merits. However, critics argue that true equality of opportunity is often not achieved in practice within meritocratic systems due to various structural barriers.

What is the 'merit' formula proposed by Michael Young and L. Ieva?

Michael Young proposed a formula for merit as m = IQ + E (intelligence plus effort). L. Ieva's formula is m = f (IQ, Cut, ex) + E, suggesting merit is a function of intelligence, culture, and experience, with energy added to this.

What is the main argument in Daniel Markovits's book *The Meritocracy Trap*?

Markovits argues that meritocracy has created a system of 'snowball inequality,' where elites secure advantages through education and pass them to their children, widening the gap between the elite and the middle class. He contends this system is detrimental to both societal fairness and the well-being of the elite themselves.

What does Michael Sandel propose as an alternative to the current understanding of meritocracy?

Michael Sandel advocates for a shift from 'distributive justice' to 'contributive justice.' He suggests focusing on creating conditions for everyone to contribute to the common good and receive recognition, rather than solely justifying inequality based on perceived merit, and proposes policies like progressive taxation.

What is the 'meritocratic worldview' mentioned by Thomas Piketty?

Thomas Piketty refers to the 'meritocratic worldview' as the underlying belief system in democratic societies that personal success is primarily due to individual merit. He notes that this worldview often coexists with significant social immobility and inherited wealth, serving as a cultural justification for contemporary capitalist inequalities.

How did the British Empire adopt meritocratic principles?

The British Empire adopted meritocratic principles in its administration of India by hiring and promoting employees based on competitive examinations, aiming to prevent corruption and favoritism. This practice was later adopted in Britain itself in the late nineteenth century, inspired by the Chinese mandarin system.

What is the 'achievement ideology'?

The 'achievement ideology' is a belief system that emphasizes personal success as a result of individual talent, effort, and merit. This ideology is closely linked to the concept of meritocracy, suggesting that societal rewards should be based on accomplishments.

What are the potential negative outcomes of meritocracy according to critics like Chris Hayes?

Chris Hayes, in *Twilight of the Elites*, argues that the move towards meritocracy has led to widespread inequality and corruption, resulting in a significant decrease in public trust in American institutions.

What did Pope Francis warn about regarding meritocracy?

Pope Francis warned that while valuing hard work and initiative is positive, meritocracy can become a 'screen' that consolidates privileges for a few if not accompanied by genuine equality of opportunity. He cautioned against mistaken notions that can further entrench existing power structures.

What is the core argument of Joseph Chan regarding Confucianism, liberalism, and democracy?

Joseph Chan argues that Confucianism can be compatible with both liberalism and democracy, not necessarily for their own sake, but instrumentally. He suggests that Confucian institutions and culture can complement liberal democratic frameworks to serve Confucian goals and cultivate virtues.

What criticism do some Confucians have of political meritocrats like Daniel Bell?

Some Confucians criticize proponents of political meritocracy like Daniel Bell for rejecting democracy. They argue that Confucianism does not inherently conflict with popular sovereignty, political equality, or the right to political participation, and that meritocrats may overestimate democracy's flaws while underestimating practical challenges.

What is the 'meritocratic nature' of a society, according to Satoshi Araki?

Satoshi Araki suggests that the 'meritocratic nature' of a society should be examined by distinguishing between educational credentials and actual abilities. He argues that in many contemporary societies, credentialism prevails over skills-based meritocracy, leading to an 'imagined meritocracy' where people believe success is based on merit when it is often influenced by qualifications.

What is the 'meritocratic principle' that Markovits proposes as an alternative?

Daniel Markovits proposes an alternative approach where socioeconomic conveniences are freely distributed to those who are sufficiently successful, rather than fostering continuous competition. He calls for reforms to include a wider population and reduce inequality by questioning the dominance of high-profile workers and redistributing resources.

What is the main concern regarding the definition of 'merit' in a meritocracy?

A primary concern is the lack of a clear, universally agreed-upon definition of 'merit.' What qualities are considered meritorious can vary significantly, raising questions about which standard is the 'best' and whether it accurately reflects the competencies required for specific roles.

How does the concept of 'social mobility' relate to meritocracy?

Meritocracy, in one of its conceptions, presupposes social mobility, meaning that individuals can move up or down the social ladder based on their talent and effort. This contrasts with systems where social standing is largely determined by birth or inherited status.

What is the significance of the 'Four Barbarians' in relation to Chinese meritocracy?

The 'Hua–Yi distinction,' which categorized people as 'Hua' (civilized) or 'Yi' (barbarian), was challenged by Confucian meritocracy. The idea was that merit, not ethnic or cultural background, should determine one's place, thus potentially including those previously considered 'barbarians' if they demonstrated merit.

What is the 'meritocratic worldview' that Thomas Piketty discusses?

Thomas Piketty describes the 'meritocratic worldview' as the belief system underpinning contemporary democratic societies, where success is attributed to individual merit. He notes that this belief often coexists with significant inherited wealth and limited social mobility, serving as a cultural justification for existing inequalities.

What is the core argument of Daniel Bell and Wang Pei in 'Just Hierarchy' regarding political systems?

Bell and Wang argue that hierarchies are necessary for coordinating collective action in complex societies. They propose 'progressive conservatism,' advocating for political hierarchies that are just, prioritizing competence and the common good, and suggest a model of 'democracy at the bottom, experimentation in the middle, and meritocracy at the top.'

What is the 'meritocratic nature' of a society according to Satoshi Araki?

Satoshi Araki posits that a society's 'meritocratic nature' should be assessed by distinguishing between educational credentials and actual abilities. He argues that many societies, including the US, operate under an 'imagined meritocracy' where credentials, rather than skills, are the primary drivers of success and social mobility.

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Defining Meritocracy

Core Principle

Meritocracy is a political and social system where power, wealth, and status are allocated based on an individual's abilities, talents, and demonstrated achievements, rather than on inherited wealth or social class. Advancement within such a system is predicated on performance, typically measured through examinations or proven accomplishments.

Etymological Roots

The term "meritocracy" originates from the Latin word meritus (earned) and the Ancient Greek suffix kratos (power or rule). Coined pejoratively by sociologist Alan Fox in 1956 and popularized by Michael Young in his 1958 book The Rise of the Meritocracy, the term initially critiqued systems where merit was narrowly defined and led to rigid social stratification.

Modern Interpretation

While originating as a critique, the term is now often used to describe systems that promote social mobility and equality of opportunity. In this contemporary sense, meritocracy refers to a society where personal advancement primarily reflects an individual's capabilities and efforts, challenging nepotism and hereditary privilege.

Conceptions of Merit

Tested Competency

A common definition of meritocracy emphasizes tested competency and ability, often measured by IQ scores or standardized achievement tests. In governance, this translates to advancement based on performance, intelligence, credentials, and education, typically determined through formal evaluations.

Historical Context

Ancient thinkers like Plato and Aristotle advocated for rule by the wisest or most virtuous. Historically, systems like the civil service examinations in Imperial China exemplify meritocratic principles, allowing social mobility through demonstrated intellectual merit rather than birthright.

Imperial China: Civil service examinations, dating back to the Sui dynasty, allowed advancement based on academic merit.
Ancient Greece: Philosophers like Plato proposed rule by philosopher-kings, selected for their wisdom.
Islamic World: Early Caliphates and the Ottoman Empire utilized systems like the devşirme, where individuals were selected and promoted based on merit and service.

Merit vs. Credentials

Modern critiques question whether contemporary systems truly reward merit or merely credentials. The prevalence of educational qualifications as a primary screening mechanism raises concerns about access, fairness, and whether credentials accurately reflect innate ability or potential.

Historical Trajectory

Ancient Roots

Meritocratic ideals can be traced to ancient civilizations. Confucius advocated for governance based on virtue and ability, influencing the development of China's imperial examination system. Plato and Aristotle also discussed systems where rulers were chosen based on wisdom and merit.

Global Spread

The concept influenced governance across cultures. In the Islamic world, meritocratic principles guided succession and appointments. The British Empire adopted elements of the Chinese civil service system for its administration in India, emphasizing competitive examinations to prevent corruption.

17th Century: British adoption of merit-based civil service in India, influenced by Chinese models.
19th Century: U.S. Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act (1883) shifted appointments from patronage to merit-based exams.
1850s: Australia established public universities to promote meritocracy through education and credentials.
20th Century: Singapore officially adopted meritocracy as a guiding policy principle, emphasizing academic credentials.

American Context

In the United States, the spoils system was gradually replaced by merit-based appointments following the Pendleton Act of 1883. This aimed to ensure federal jobs were awarded based on competence rather than political affiliation, though debates about fairness and access persist.

Confucianism & Meritocracy

Ancient Foundation

Confucius championed the idea that rulers should govern based on virtue and merit, not hereditary status. This principle underpinned the development of China's imperial examination system, which served as a pathway for social mobility and bureaucratic selection for centuries.

Modern Relevance

Contemporary scholars debate the compatibility of Confucian ideals with modern governance. Some argue that Confucian political meritocracy offers a viable alternative or complement to liberal democracy, emphasizing competence, ethical leadership, and the common good.

Proponents: Scholars like Daniel Bell and Tongdong Bai suggest Confucian meritocracy can provide checks on democratic flaws, promoting long-term planning and ethical governance.
Critics: Others argue that decoupling meritocracy from democracy risks authoritarianism and that Confucian ideals can be adapted to support, rather than replace, democratic principles.
Institutional Design: Discussions involve models like "democracy at the bottom, meritocracy at the top," or hybrid systems combining elected representatives with merit-selected officials.

Balancing Merit and Representation

The challenge lies in balancing the selection of competent leaders with principles of popular sovereignty and political equality. Confucian thought offers frameworks for ethical governance, but its application in modern states involves complex debates about institutional design and the definition of merit itself.

Critiques and Challenges

The Meritocracy Gap

Critics argue that modern meritocracies often exacerbate social stratification and inequality. The original pejorative intent of the term highlights concerns that systems designed to reward merit can create rigid elites, limiting social mobility and perpetuating privilege.

Defining and Measuring Merit

A fundamental challenge is the ambiguity in defining and measuring "merit." Reliance on standardized tests, credentials, or even peer evaluations can be flawed, potentially overlooking diverse talents, introducing bias, or favoring those with access to resources for credential acquisition.

Standardized Tests: Often criticized for measuring narrow skills, potentially neglecting creativity, critical thinking, and initiative.
Credentials: May favor individuals with access to elite education, creating a "credential society" rather than a true meritocracy.
Informal Networks: Mentorship and word-of-mouth opportunities can provide advantages not captured by formal meritocratic processes.

Social and Psychological Costs

Philosophers like Michael Sandel and Daniel Markovits argue that the relentless pursuit of merit can lead to increased anxiety, social division, and a decline in solidarity. The belief that success is solely earned can foster arrogance among elites and despair among those who fall behind, contributing to phenomena like "deaths of despair."

The "Princeling" Problem

In some contexts, like contemporary China, the rise of "princelings" (offspring of political elites) in government positions challenges meritocratic ideals. This concentration of power within families or political factions contradicts the principle of advancement based purely on ability and effort.

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References

Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142. One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed in the imperial bureaucracy of China.

For more on this topic: Madeline C. Zilfi, Politics of Piety: The Ottoman Ulema in the Postclassical Age (1600â1800)

Roger Savory, Iran under the Safavids, p. 183.

Huddleston, Mark W. Boyer, William W. The higher civil service in the United States: quest for reform. (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), 9-10.

Kevin Shillington, 1995 (1989), History of Africa, New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 195.

Julia Horne, and Geoffrey Sherington, "Extending the educational franchise: the social contract of Australia's public universities, 1850-1890", Paedagogica Historica (2010) 46#1 pp 207-227

Joseph Chan, Confucian Perfectionism: A Political Philosophy For Modern Times (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013).

Pope Francis (2023), Laudate Deum, paragraphs 32, accessed 10 June 2024

A full list of references for this article are available at the Meritocracy Wikipedia page

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Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice

This content has been generated by an AI model for educational purposes, drawing upon publicly available data. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the source material, it is intended as an introductory overview and not a definitive academic treatise.

This is not professional advice. The information presented here should not substitute for rigorous academic study, consultation with experts in political science, sociology, or philosophy, or critical engagement with primary sources. The complexities of meritocracy, its historical evolution, and its societal implications are subjects of ongoing scholarly debate.

Users are encouraged to consult original academic works and diverse perspectives to form their own informed conclusions.

The Architecture of Achievement

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Defining Meritocracy ⚖️

💡 Core Principle

🗣️ Etymological Roots

🔄 Modern Interpretation

Conceptions of Merit 🧠

📊 Tested Competency

📜 Historical Context

⚖️ Merit vs. Credentials

Historical Trajectory ⏳

🌍 Ancient Roots

🌐 Global Spread

🇺🇸 American Context

Confucianism & Meritocracy 🏯

📜 Ancient Foundation

🤝 Modern Relevance

⚖️ Balancing Merit and Representation

Critiques and Challenges ⚠️

📉 The Meritocracy Gap

❓ Defining and Measuring Merit

😥 Social and Psychological Costs

👑 The "Princeling" Problem

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

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References

📜 References

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Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Meritocracy

Core Principle

Etymological Roots

Modern Interpretation

Conceptions of Merit

Tested Competency

Historical Context

Merit vs. Credentials

Historical Trajectory

Ancient Roots

Global Spread

American Context

Confucianism & Meritocracy

Ancient Foundation

Modern Relevance

Balancing Merit and Representation

Critiques and Challenges

The Meritocracy Gap

Defining and Measuring Merit

Social and Psychological Costs

The "Princeling" Problem

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice