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The American Liberal Tradition

Exploring the evolution, core tenets, and societal impact of modern liberalism in the United States.

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What is Liberalism?

Core Tenets and Distinctions

Modern liberalism in the United States, often simply referred to as liberalism, represents a dominant political ideology. It integrates principles of cultural liberalism, civil liberty, and social equality with a strong commitment to social justice and a mixed economy. This contemporary form distinguishes itself from classical liberalism, which historically emphasized limited government and laissez-faire economics. American philosopher Ian Adams notes that while all major American parties espouse a form of classical liberalism, the key divergence lies in the influence of social liberalism.[1]

Economic and Social Policy Pillars

Economically, modern liberalism advocates for a significant governmental role in addressing market failures, safeguarding competition, and preventing corporate monopolies. It champions labor rights and supports fiscal policies that ensure robust funding for a social safety net. Furthermore, it promotes income-proportional tax reform to manage deficits and actively seeks government involvement in reducing economic inequality, expanding access to education and healthcare, and protecting the natural environment.[2][3]

Historical Genesis and Landmark Programs

The modern liberal framework solidified in the 20th century, largely as a direct response to the profound economic challenges of the Great Depression.[4] Its policy legacy includes transformative initiatives such as the New Deal, the Fair Deal, the New Frontier, and the Great Society. More recent examples include the Affordable Care Act and the Build Back Better Plan, all reflecting a sustained commitment to governmental action in social and economic spheres.[5][6]

Ideological Foundations

Public Investment & Social Imperatives

The modern liberal philosophy strongly endorses public investment in critical areas such as education, healthcare, and welfare programs. Key social issues championed in the 21st century include advancing social justice, mitigating economic inequality (both wealth and income), protecting voting rights for minorities, supporting affirmative action, upholding reproductive and women's rights, advocating for LGBT rights, and pursuing comprehensive immigration reform.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21]

Defining the Liberal Ethos

Prominent American leaders have articulated the essence of liberalism. In 1941, Franklin D. Roosevelt defined a liberal party as one that believes government has a definite duty to find new remedies for societal problems beyond individual capacity, using its power and resources to ensure economic and political life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness for the average person.[29] John F. Kennedy, in 1960, characterized a liberal as someone who looks ahead, welcomes new ideas, and cares deeply about the welfare of the people—their health, housing, schools, jobs, civil rights, and civil liberties.[30][31]

Economic Philosophy and Societal Vision

Keynesian economic theory has significantly influenced modern liberal economic philosophy, positing that national prosperity necessitates government management of the macroeconomy to maintain low unemployment, control inflation, and foster high growth.[32] Modern liberals also prioritize institutions that counteract economic inequality. Paul Krugman, in "The Conscience of a Liberal," expresses this belief in a relatively equal society supported by institutions that limit extremes of wealth and poverty, alongside democracy, civil liberties, and the rule of law.[33] They often cite the widespread prosperity under a mixed economy post-World War II as evidence.[34][35] Liberty, in this view, is realized when essential services like healthcare and economic opportunities are universally accessible, and environmental protection is a paramount concern.[36][37][38]

Transatlantic Interpretations

The term "liberalism" carries distinct meanings across different geopolitical contexts. In the United States, it almost exclusively refers to modern liberalism. However, in Europe and Latin America, "liberalism" typically denotes what is often termed classical liberalism, emphasizing limited government and laissez-faire economics. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. observed in 1956 that American usage has little in common with European usage, save possibly Britain.[39] This classical liberalism in Europe sometimes aligns more closely with American libertarianism, though distinctions exist.[40]

Historical Trajectories

Foundational Influences

Modern liberalism's roots in the United States can be traced through several significant historical periods and political movements. Historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. extensively explored the profound influence of Jacksonian democracy on Franklin D. Roosevelt's policies.[61] Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson's biographer, noted that Jacksonian Democracy stretched the concept of democracy to its practical limits and inspired dynamic events throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, including Populism, Progressivism, the New and Fair Deals, and the New Frontier and Great Society programs.[62]

Redefining Liberalism

Schlesinger further articulated that American liberalism consistently aims for equality of opportunity, with the methods adapting to changing circumstances. He identified Theodore Roosevelt's Square Deal and New Nationalism, Woodrow Wilson's New Freedom, and Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal as pivotal periods that redefined liberalism for the 20th century. These eras collectively forged the concept of a social welfare state, where the national government assumed explicit obligations to maintain high employment, supervise labor standards, regulate business competition, and establish comprehensive social security systems.[39] This evolution marks a clear distinction from earlier American classical liberalism.[63]>

Party Realignment and Geographic Shifts

In the first half of the 20th century, both major American parties housed influential conservative and liberal factions. The conservative coalition, comprising northern Republicans and Southern Democrats, dominated Congress from 1937 until the Johnson administration.[5] Post-World War II, northern Democrats increasingly supported civil rights and organized labor, while Southern Democrats opposed these shifts. Following the Civil Rights Act of 1964, conservative Democrats began to leave the party, leading to a significant realignment by the 1970s, where the Democratic Party became predominantly liberal and the Republican Party predominantly conservative.[5][7][8][9] This shift is also reflected geographically, with urban areas leaning liberal and rural areas conservative since the 21st century.[10][11]>

The Progressive Era

Emergence of a New Liberalism

The progressive movement, emerging in the 1890s, marked a pivotal transformation of Victorian liberalism. Intellectual reformers such as sociologist Lester Frank Ward and economist Richard T. Ely retained the commitment to civil liberties and individual rights but discarded the advocacy of laissez-faire economics.[64] Ward, in particular, was instrumental in shaping the concept of the modern welfare state that would take form after 1933.[65] These reformers often aligned with burgeoning working-class labor unions and, at times, even socialists.

Social Gospel and Educational Influence

The Social Gospel movement, a Protestant intellectual current from the 1890s to the 1920s, significantly influenced liberalism by applying Christian ethics to social problems like economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, and child labor.[66] This movement profoundly inspired figures like Lyndon B. Johnson, whose commitment to social justice and racial equality, as seen in the Great Society, stemmed from this tradition.[67] In the realm of philosophy and education, John Dewey's ideas were highly influential, advocating for progressive education and democratic principles.[68]>

Fighting Corruption and Trusts

From 1900 to 1920, liberals identified as progressives, uniting behind leaders like Republicans Theodore Roosevelt and Robert M. La Follette, and Democrats William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson. Their collective efforts targeted corruption, governmental waste, and the unchecked power of large trusts (monopolies). They championed social justice and advocated for governmental intervention to resolve pressing social and economic issues. Settlement workers, such as Jane Addams, were prominent figures in this liberal tradition.[69] Political writer Herbert Croly, through "The New Republic" magazine, further defined this new liberalism, advocating for a planned economy, increased educational spending, and a society founded on the "brotherhood of mankind."[71]>

The New Deal Era

Crisis Response and Federal Expansion

President Franklin D. Roosevelt assumed office in 1933 amidst the devastating Great Depression, introducing the New Deal as a comprehensive response to economic despair and unemployment. His unprecedented presidency, lasting until 1945, dramatically expanded the federal government's role in addressing national economic and social challenges. This era saw the creation of work relief programs, ambitious economic development projects like the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the establishment of a social security system. Congressional support, particularly from a more radical House of Representatives after the 1934 midterms, was crucial for advancing these progressive measures.[87][88]>[89]>[90]>[91]>[92]>

The Three R's: Relief, Recovery, Reform

The New Deal was structured around three core objectives: relief, recovery, and reform.[96]>

  • Relief: Immediate aid for the most affected population. Programs included the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), Public Works Administration (PWA), and Works Progress Administration (WPA). The Social Security Act (SSA) and unemployment insurance were also established in 1935.
  • Recovery: Aimed at restoring the economy to pre-Depression levels through increased government spending, deficit spending, abandoning the gold standard, and efforts to boost farm prices and foreign trade. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) played a key role in funding.
  • Reform: Based on the premise that market instability caused the depression, necessitating government intervention to stabilize the economy and balance interests. Measures included the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), Securities Exchange Act (SEA) for Wall Street regulation, Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) via the Glass–Steagall Act, and the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) or Wagner Act for labor relations.

While some conservatives feared the New Deal signaled socialism, Roosevelt privately noted this concern, emphasizing that only one major program, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), involved government ownership of production means.[97]>

Racial Dynamics and Critiques

Despite its progressive aims, the New Deal operated within a racially segregated society. Programs like the WPA and CCC maintained segregated units, and black individuals were severely limited in supervisory roles, particularly in the South.[98]>[99]>[100] Even prominent racial liberals within the administration, such as Harold Ickes, refrained from directly challenging Jim Crow laws, believing that segregation would crumble with improved educational and economic status for African Americans.[101]>[102]>[103] New Left historians in the 1960s criticized the New Deal for its perceived timidity in challenging capitalism and its failure to vigorously pursue racial equality, highlighting its commitment to preserving capitalism over fundamental social transformation.[104]>[105]>

Evolving Foreign Policy

Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policy initially mirrored the isolationist sentiment prevalent in American politics until 1938. However, as global tensions escalated towards war, his administration shifted towards interventionism.[106] This period saw a split among liberals, with some aligning with Roosevelt's interventionist stance while others, like John L. Lewis and the Kennedy Family, maintained opposition. Anticipating the post-war global order, Roosevelt became a staunch advocate for the creation of a United Nations organization, drawing lessons from Woodrow Wilson's experience with the League of Nations. He strategically included Republicans in foreign policy discussions and insisted on a veto power for the United States within the UN, ensuring broader support and effectiveness.[107]>

Cold War Liberalism

Post-War Ideological Realignment

American liberalism during the Cold War era inherited the legacies of the New Deal and the Progressive Era. However, the post-1945 period witnessed a significant ideological split within the left-liberal alliance over the issue of Communism. Anti-Communist liberals, led by figures like Walter Reuther and Hubert Humphrey, successfully purged far-left elements from labor unions and the New Deal coalition. This realignment committed the Democratic Party to a robust Cold War policy, characterized by support for NATO and the containment of Communism. This era also saw a shift towards a quantitative goal of economic growth, often accepting large near-monopolies, rather than the structural economic transformations envisioned by earlier left-liberals.[108]>

Core Policy Pillars

The defining characteristics of Cold War liberalism included:

  • Support for a domestic economy balanced between organized labor and management, with a focus on large corporations.
  • A foreign policy centered on containing the Soviet Union and its allies.
  • The continuation and expansion of New Deal social welfare programs, including Social Security.
  • An embrace of Keynesian economics, which often manifested as military Keynesianism due to defense spending.[109]

While sharing some similarities with European social democracy, American liberals generally favored regulation for public benefit over nationalization of industries.[110]>

Political Dynamics and Civil Liberties

During the 1950s and 1960s, both major American political parties contained liberal and conservative factions. The Democratic Party saw a divide between Northern and Western liberals and conservative Southern whites. Northern big city Democratic political machines, though supportive of New Deal economics, declined amidst urban racial tensions by the 1960s.[111] The Republican Party's more liberal wing, prominent in the Northeast, supported New Deal programs, labor unions, and an internationalist foreign policy.[112] The era also presented tensions between anti-Communism and civil liberties, exemplified by Hubert Humphrey's unsuccessful sponsorship of a bill to allow detention without trial for those deemed subversive.[113] Nevertheless, liberals were instrumental in opposing and ultimately contributing to the downfall of McCarthyism.[114]>

The Fifties: Doldrums and Dominance

By 1950, liberalism was so intellectually dominant that literary critic Lionel Trilling famously remarked on the absence of circulating conservative or reactionary ideas.[143] Despite this intellectual sway, many historians view liberalism in the 1950s as being in a period of stagnation, overshadowed by the perceived complacency of the Eisenhower years. Adlai Stevenson II's presidential campaigns, marked by significant losses, offered few novel liberal proposals beyond a call for a worldwide nuclear test ban.[144] Critics often lament the collaboration between Democratic leaders like Lyndon B. Johnson and Sam Rayburn with Eisenhower, as well as the strong anti-Communist stance adopted by labor unions and liberal spokesmen, which diverted attention from the nascent civil rights movement.[145]>

The Great Society

Johnson's Legislative Zenith

The mid-1960s marked the zenith of American liberalism with President Lyndon B. Johnson's (1963–1969) successful passage of the Great Society programs. This ambitious legislative agenda encompassed a wide array of reforms, including landmark civil rights legislation that ended segregation, the establishment of Medicare, significant expansions of welfare programs, federal aid to education at all levels, subsidies for the arts and humanities, robust environmental activism, and a series of initiatives designed to eradicate poverty.[173]>[174]>

Broadening Federal Reach

Under Johnson's leadership, the federal government's reach expanded dramatically, authorizing over 200 new federal grant programs. These grants were directed to states, cities, counties, school districts, local communities, and charities, signifying a profound increase in federal involvement in local and social issues.[175] This expansion aimed to address systemic inequalities and improve the quality of life for all Americans, reflecting a deep commitment to social uplift through governmental action.

Cold War's Unintended Progressive Outcomes

Historian Joseph Crespino highlights that Cold War concerns paradoxically underpinned several progressive political achievements during the post-war period. These included high progressive marginal tax rates that funded the arms race while contributing to broad income equality, bipartisan support for far-reaching civil rights legislation that transformed the American South, and the overturning of explicitly racist immigration systems. Furthermore, the push for free healthcare for the elderly and poor, a partial fulfillment of New Deal goals, also emerged within this Cold War context, demonstrating how geopolitical imperatives could inadvertently foster domestic progressive reforms.[176]>

Demographic & Geographic Trends

Educational and Economic Profile

A 2005 Pew Research Center study revealed that liberals constituted the most educated ideological demographic, tying with conservative "enterprisers" as the most affluent group. Specifically, 49% of self-identified liberals were college graduates, and 41% reported household incomes exceeding $75,000, significantly higher than the national averages of 27% and 28%, respectively.[42] Subsequent Zogby surveys in 2008 and 2010 further affirmed that self-identified liberals tend to pursue higher education more frequently than their conservative counterparts.

Academic Influence

Liberalism has become the predominant political ideology within academia, with surveys from 2009 indicating that 44–62% of academics identify as liberal, a notable increase from 40–46% between 1969 and 1984.[43] This trend is most pronounced in the social sciences and humanities, while business and engineering departments exhibit the least liberal identification. Nevertheless, even in these less liberal fields, liberals outnumbered conservatives by a two-to-one margin.[44]

Shifting Social and Geographic Landscape

Gallup polls indicate a consistent rise in socially liberal views in the United States since 1999. As of 2015, the number of socially liberal Americans roughly equaled socially conservative Americans (31% each), with the liberal trend continuing upward.[47] While overall, more Americans identify as conservative (37%) or moderate (35%) than liberal (24% in early 2016), liberalism has steadily gained ground since 1992, reaching a 24-year high.[48] Young Americans are notably more liberal than the general population, with 30% of the 18–29 cohort identifying as liberal in 2009.[45] Geographically, liberal strongholds include the Northeast, Great Lakes region, parts of the Southwest, and the West Coast, with urban cores of large metropolitan areas consistently leaning more liberal and Democratic, highlighting a clear urban–rural political divide.[49]>[50]>[51]>

The Intellectual Vanguard

The Role of Public Intellectuals

Intellectuals and writers formed a crucial component of the liberal coalition, particularly during the Cold War era. Many, especially historians, became prominent spokesmen for liberalism, contributing to public discourse through lectures and popular essays in influential magazines such as "The New Republic," "Saturday Review," "The Atlantic Monthly," and "Harpers."[162]>[163] These public intellectuals felt a duty to articulate how liberalism underpinned American values, believing that an educated public would support liberal programs, especially internationalism and the New Deal.

Diverse Academic Contributions

The intellectual landscape of liberalism was enriched by contributions from various academic disciplines. Literary critics like Lionel Trilling and Alfred Kazin[164] shaped cultural discourse, while economists such as Alvin Hansen, John Kenneth Galbraith, James Tobin, and Paul Samuelson[165]>[166] provided theoretical underpinnings for economic policies. Political scientists like Robert A. Dahl and Seymour Martin Lipset, and sociologists such as David Riesman and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, further contributed to the intellectual framework of modern liberalism.[167]>

Evolution of Public Discourse

Historians like Henry Steele Commager, Allan Nevins, Daniel Boorstin, Richard Hofstadter, and C. Vann Woodward were widely read by the general public, emphasizing liberalism as a foundation of American history.[168] Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., perhaps the most prominent, highlighted the ideological history of American liberalism through his works on presidents like Andrew Jackson and the Roosevelts.[169] However, contemporary experts, such as Neil Jumonville, argue that this influential style of public history has diminished in the 21st century, replaced by more abstruse, specialized, and identity-focused scholarship, leading to a loss of a common identity in public discourse.[170]>[171]>[172]>

21st-Century Liberalism

Social Policy Advocacy

In the 21st century, modern liberalism in the United States continues to advocate for government intervention on critical social issues. This includes ensuring recognized legal access to abortion and other reproductive rights for women.[52] Modern liberals also tend to support police reform through governmental action, with Democratic mayors often campaigning on initiatives to address police misconduct and brutality.[53] Furthermore, there is strong support for affirmative action policies aimed at rectifying historical discrimination against minority groups,[54] alongside a commitment to multilateralism and strengthening international institutions.[55]>

Advancing LGBTQ+ Rights

A significant focus for modern liberals in the 21st century has been the advancement of LGBTQ+ rights. Beginning in 2000, liberals championed state recognition of gay marriage and the implementation of anti-discrimination laws for homosexual individuals.[56] This advocacy led to crimes motivated by prejudice against sexual orientation being recognized as federal hate crimes in 2009. The landmark Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges legalized gay marriage nationwide, a right later codified by the Respect for Marriage Act, signed by President Joe Biden. Democrats and modern liberals consistently support transgender rights, lobbying for anti-discrimination laws and expanded access to transgender healthcare.[57]>

Economic Regulation and Equity

On economic matters, 21st-century modern liberals, echoing their 20th-century predecessors, advocate for greater regulation and oversight of businesses.[58] In response to growing income inequality in the United States, they generally support tax increases on the wealthy.[59] A major policy initiative, particularly since the Obama administration, has been the pursuit of a system of universal healthcare for the United States, making healthcare a central issue in electoral campaigns.[60]>

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References

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A full list of references for this article are available at the Modern liberalism in the United States Wikipedia page

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