What is the Montenegrin language, and what is its relationship to Serbo-Croatian?

Montenegrin is the standard variety of the Serbo-Croatian language, primarily used by Montenegrins. It is recognized as the official language of Montenegro and is based on the Shtokavian dialect, specifically the Eastern Herzegovinian subdialect, which also forms the basis for the standard varieties of Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian.

What are the native names for the Montenegrin language?

The native names for the Montenegrin language are 'crnogorski' in the Latin script and 'црногорски' in the Cyrillic script.

When did Montenegrin officially become the language of Montenegro?

Montenegrin became the official language of Montenegro in 2007, following the adoption of the country's new constitution.

What is the linguistic classification of the Montenegrin language?

Montenegrin is classified within the Indo-European language family, specifically under the Balto-Slavic branch, then Slavic, South Slavic, and finally Western South Slavic, as a standard variety of Serbo-Croatian.

What is the historical context of the language's name in Montenegro?

Historically, the language used in Montenegro has been referred to as either Serbian or Montenegrin. The concept of a distinct Montenegrin standard language emerged in the 1990s, coinciding with the push for Montenegrin independence.

When did literacy in Montenegro begin, and what scripts were used in its early stages?

Literacy in Montenegro dates back to the 9th century during the Duklja period. Early literacy traces are found in Latin and Greek, with indirect evidence of Slavic language use. The Glagolitic script was influenced by the Slavic literacy center in Ohrid, though some suggest Slavic literature in Duklja was written in Latin script.

What role did monasteries play in early Montenegrin literacy?

Monasteries played a significant role in the early development of literacy in Montenegro, with numerous monasteries established in the coastal region. The Monastery of Prečista Krajinska, located near Lake Skadar, was a notable center for literary activity during this period.

How did Cyrillic script become dominant in the Zeta period?

During the Zeta period, which followed Duklja's fall to Serbian rule and encompassed the Balšić and Crnojević families' governance, Old Church Slavonic and the Cyrillic script became dominant, gradually replacing the Glagolitic script.

What was the significance of the printing press established in Zeta?

Đurađ Crnojević established a printing press in Zeta, first in Obod and later in Cetinje. This press produced five incunabula, making Montenegro one of the few Slavic nations to have early printed books in their language during that era.

What is the Miroslav Gospel, and what is its connection to Montenegrin linguistic history?

The Miroslav Gospel, dating from the 12th century and written in Kotor, is significant as an example of the Zetan (Montenegrin) redaction of Old Church Slavonic. This redaction adapted Old Church Slavonic to the local language of medieval Zeta, influencing Bosnian and Serbian redactions.

How did the written language in Montenegro evolve between the 15th and 18th centuries?

From the 15th to the 18th century, the written language in Montenegro gradually shifted towards reflecting the local spoken language. While Old Church Slavonic continued to be used in the Orthodox Church, secular written language increasingly adopted vernacular features. The coastal regions also saw influence from Latin and Italian.

Who were key literary figures in the late Baroque period in Montenegro, and what language did they use?

Andrija Zmajević, active in the Bay of Kotor, and Danilo Petrović Njegoš, based in Cetinje, were significant writers of the late Baroque period. Both utilized the Montenegrin vernacular in their works.

What linguistic principle did Ivan-Antun Nenadić advocate for in the 18th century?

Ivan-Antun Nenadić, from Perast, advocated for the phonetic orthographic principle, emphasizing that written language should accurately reflect how people speak and pronounce words. This principle was later embraced in Montenegrin literature and aligned with Vuk Karadžić's reforms.

How did Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reforms influence the Montenegrin language?

Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reforms were readily accepted in Montenegro, partly because the phonetic principle was already present in Montenegrin literature. This led to an assimilation of the Montenegrin language towards Karadžić's standardized Shtokavian model, particularly through textbooks and educational practices.

Which Montenegrin authors are noted for preserving distinct Montenegrin language characteristics in their literary works?

Petar II Petrović Njegoš, Stefan Mitrov Ljubiša, and Marko Miljanov Popović are recognized for their works that retained foundational Montenegrin language characteristics, even as the literary language evolved towards broader standardization.

What changes occurred in the Montenegrin literary language during the Yugoslav era, particularly influenced by Aleksandar Belić?

During the interwar period, influenced by Aleksandar Belić's orthography, Montenegrin linguistic peculiarities were assimilated into the broader 'Serbo-Croatian' framework. Belić promoted non-jotized forms (like 'djed' instead of 'đed') and simplified pronominal-adjective declensions, which altered the linguistic model previously associated with Vuk Karadžić's reforms.

What was the trend regarding ekavian and ijekavian usage in Montenegro during the interwar period?

Despite the formal acknowledgment of the ijekavian pronunciation in the literary language, the interwar period saw an increasing use of the ekavian pronunciation in Montenegro. This shift was largely driven by educational policies, with textbooks and teachers favoring ekavian norms.

What significant document emphasized the autonomy of the Montenegrin language in the post-WWII era?

The Declaration on the Constitutional Status of the Montenegrin Language, issued by the Montenegrin PEN Center in 1997, was a significant document that highlighted the autonomy and distinctiveness of the Montenegrin language.

What new letters were proposed for the Montenegrin alphabets in 2009?

The 2009 proposal for the Montenegrin standard introduced two additional letters: 'ś' and 'ź' for the Latin alphabet, and their Cyrillic equivalents 'С́' and 'З́'. These were intended to replace the digraphs 'sj' and 'zj'.

What was the official status of the language in Montenegro before the 2007 constitution?

In the Principality/Kingdom of Montenegro, the language was called Serbian. Later, during the Socialist Republic of Montenegro, Serbo-Croatian was the official designation, and the 1992 Constitution referred to the 'Serbian language of the ijekavian dialect'.

According to the 2023 census data, how did the population of Montenegro identify their mother tongue?

The 2023 census indicated that 34.5% of Montenegro's population declared Montenegrin as their mother tongue, while 43.2% identified Serbian as their mother tongue.

Which Shtokavian dialects are relevant to the Montenegrin language and its classification?

Montenegrin is based on the Shtokavian dialect, specifically the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect, which is spoken in most of Montenegro and shared with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia. The Zeta-Raška dialect, prevalent in southern Montenegro and parts of Serbia, is also relevant.

What are the preferred alphabets for the Montenegrin language, and what are the differences?

Proponents of a distinct Montenegrin language often prefer the Gaj's Latin alphabet. Both the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets used for Montenegrin include two additional letters (ś, ź in Latin; С́, З́ in Cyrillic) compared to the standard Serbian alphabets, though their implementation in Cyrillic presents typesetting challenges.

How did Petar II Petrović Njegoš adapt his work to align with Serbian linguistic standards?

In the printed version of his work 'Gorski vijenac' (The Mountain Wreath), Njegoš modified certain features of the Zeta-South Raška dialect to conform to Vuk Karadžić's proposed Serbian standard. For example, he changed accusatives of place to locatives, as seen in the transition from 'na muku' to 'na muke'.

What is the primary argument made by proponents of the Montenegrin language regarding its status?

Proponents argue that the recognition of Montenegrin is primarily a matter of self-determination and the right of people to name their language, rather than an attempt to artificially create a new language. They view it as one of several names for the shared Shtokavian linguistic system.

What was the impact of the 2004 school curriculum change in Montenegro regarding language classes?

In 2004, the Montenegrin government changed mandatory language classes from 'Serbian language' to 'Mother tongue (Serbian, Montenegrin, Croatian, Bosnian)'. This decision led to protests, including teachers' strikes and parents refusing to send their children to school.

What is the significance of the Declaration on the Common Language?

The Declaration on the Common Language, signed by public figures from several former Yugoslav republics, asserts that a common, polycentric standard language is used across Montenegro, Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, consisting of several standard varieties, similar to German or English.

What specific linguistic features did Vojislav Nikčević advocate for in Montenegrin?

Vojislav Nikčević, a proponent of Montenegrin, advocated for amending the Latin alphabet with the letters ś, ź, and 3, and their Cyrillic counterparts С́, З́, and 5, representing specific sounds (IPA [ɕ], [ʑ], [dz]).

What counter-argument exists regarding the distinctiveness of the sounds represented by the proposed new Montenegrin letters?

Opponents argue that the sounds represented by the proposed letters ś, ź, and 3 are not unique phonemes in Montenegrin but rather allophones that can be found in other dialects and languages, including Serbian and Croatian spoken outside Montenegro. They also point to technical difficulties in implementing these letters in Cyrillic.

What is the official status of Montenegrin in Mali Iđoš municipality?

Montenegrin is recognized as a minority language in the Mali Iđoš municipality in Serbia.

Who regulates the standardization of the Montenegrin language?

The standardization of the Montenegrin language is regulated by the Board for Standardization of the Montenegrin Language.

What is the ISO 639-2 and ISO 639-3 code assigned to the Montenegrin language?

The ISO 639-2 and ISO 639-3 code assigned to the Montenegrin language is 'cnr'.

What was the linguistic situation in Montenegro during the period of the Principality/Kingdom?

During the Principality and Kingdom of Montenegro, the language in use was Serbian. In the 1909 census, approximately 95% of the population declared Serbian as their mother tongue.

What was the official language designation in the Socialist Republic of Montenegro after the Novi Sad Agreement?

Following the 1950 Novi Sad Agreement, Serbo-Croatian became the officially used language in the Socialist Republic of Montenegro.

What did the 1992 Constitution of Montenegro state regarding the official language?

The 1992 Constitution of Montenegro declared the official language to be the 'Serbian language of the ijekavian dialect'.

When did organizations promoting Montenegrin as a distinct language emerge?

Organizations advocating for Montenegrin as a distinct language began to appear in the early 2000s, coinciding with the period when the ruling Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro introduced the term into official usage.

What is the relationship between the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect and the Montenegrin language?

The Eastern Herzegovinian dialect serves as the basis for the Montenegrin language. This dialect is also spoken in the majority of Montenegro and is a foundation for the standard varieties of Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian.

What is the Zeta-Raška dialect, and where is it spoken?

The Zeta-Raška dialect is a dialect prevalent in mostly southern Montenegro and parts of the historical Raška region in Serbia. It is spoken by local ethnic Serbs, Montenegrins, Bosniaks, and Muslims.

What are the main differences between the Montenegrin Latin alphabet and the Serbian Latin alphabet?

The Montenegrin Latin alphabet, as proposed by its proponents, includes two additional letters, ś and ź, which are not present in the standard Serbian Latin alphabet (Gaj's Latin alphabet).

What challenges exist in typesetting the proposed additional Cyrillic letters for Montenegrin?

The proposed Cyrillic letters for Montenegrin, С́ and З́, require the use of combining characters for typesetting, which can pose technical difficulties and may not be as easily rendered in digital typography compared to their Latin counterparts.

What was the Montenegrin PEN Center's stance on the Montenegrin language in its 1997 declaration?

The 1997 Declaration by the Montenegrin PEN Center stated that the Montenegrin language is not a systemically separate language but rather one of four names (Montenegrin, Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian) used by Montenegrins to refer to their part of the Shtokavian system.

What is the role of Matica crnogorska in relation to the Montenegrin language?

Matica crnogorska is one of the important institutions that has supported the introduction and formalization of the Montenegrin language.

What was the criticism leveled against the Ministry of Education's adopted draft for Montenegrin standardization?

The Council for the Standardization of the Montenegrin Language criticized the Ministry of Education's adopted draft, stating it originated from 'a small group' and contained numerous 'methodological, conceptual and linguistic errors'.

What is the significance of the 'Montenegrin Spelling Book' adopted in 2009?

The adoption of the 'Montenegrin Spelling Book' in 2009 was a significant step in the standardization and affirmation of the Montenegrin language, following its official status granted by the 2007 constitution.

What historical linguistic practice did the Montenegrin Orthodox Church address in a 2023 statement?

A statement from the Montenegrin Orthodox Church in January 2023 addressed the 'Ukidanje crnogorskog jezika radi književnog jedinstva (1857.)', referring to the abolition of the Montenegrin language for the sake of literary unity in 1857.

What linguistic debate is highlighted by the works of Petar II Petrović Njegoš?

The works of Petar II Petrović Njegoš highlight the linguistic debate surrounding the adaptation of local dialects (like Zeta-South Raška) to the standardized Serbian language, as he modified his manuscript to align with Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reforms.

What is the relationship between Montenegrin and other standard varieties of Serbo-Croatian in terms of mutual intelligibility?

Montenegrin, along with Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian, is part of a pluricentric language system where the standard varieties are mutually intelligible, similar to how different standard varieties of German or English function.

What is the primary purpose of the Board for Standardization of the Montenegrin Language?

The Board for Standardization of the Montenegrin Language was formed in 2008 with the aim of standardizing the Montenegrin language according to international norms, with its documents intended to become part of the educational program in Montenegrin schools.

What does the term 'pluricentric language' mean in the context of Serbo-Croatian and its varieties?

In the context of Serbo-Croatian, 'pluricentric language' refers to a standard language that has more than one national center of codification and use. Montenegrin, Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian are considered standard varieties of this pluricentric language.

What historical period saw the development of the Zetan (Montenegrin) redaction of Old Church Slavonic?

The Zetan (Montenegrin) redaction of Old Church Slavonic developed during the Zeta period, with the Miroslav Gospel being a key example from the 12th century.

Montenegrin Language Wiki: Montenegrin Unveiled: A Linguistic Exploration

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What is Montenegrin?

A Standard Variety

Montenegrin is recognized as the standard variety of the Serbo-Croatian language, primarily used by the Montenegrin people. It is officially designated as the language of Montenegro. Linguistically, it is rooted in the Shtokavian dialect, specifically the Eastern Herzegovinian subdialect, which also forms the basis for the standard forms of Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian. Historically, the language spoken in Montenegro has been referred to as either Serbian or Montenegrin.

Official Status and Recognition

The formalization of Montenegrin as a distinct standard language gained momentum during the period of Montenegrin independence from Serbia and Montenegro. It was officially established as the language of Montenegro with the adoption of the 2007 Constitution. This move was part of a broader assertion of national identity and self-determination.

Speaker Demographics

According to recent census data (2023), a significant portion of Montenegro's population identifies Montenegrin as their native language, though Serbian remains the most declared mother tongue. This linguistic landscape reflects the complex ethnic and cultural identity within the nation.

Historical Trajectory

Early Literacy and Zeta Period

The origins of Montenegrin literacy trace back to the 9th century, with early evidence of Slavic language use alongside Latin and Greek. The Zeta period saw the dominance of Old Church Slavonic and the Cyrillic script, with significant literary activity centered around Lake Skadar. The Miroslav Gospel, from the 12th century, exemplifies the Zetan redaction of Old Church Slavonic, adapted to the local vernacular.

Vernacular and Standardization Efforts

From the late 15th century onwards, written language increasingly reflected the spoken vernacular. Figures like Andrija Zmajević and Danilo Petrović Njegoš contributed to this trend. The phonetic orthographic principle, advocating for writing as spoken, was championed early on, aligning with later reforms by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić. Despite the eventual adoption of Karadžić's model, traditional Montenegrin linguistic features persisted in literary works.

Yugoslav Era and Linguistic Shifts

During the Yugoslav era, particularly between the World Wars, Montenegrin linguistic peculiarities were gradually assimilated into the broader Serbo-Croatian framework. Influential linguists like Aleksandar Belić played a role in codifying norms that favored certain dialectal features, sometimes leading to the suppression of distinct Montenegrin characteristics. Post-World War II developments saw improvements in the language's standing, though formal recognition as "Montenegrin" remained elusive until independence.

Linguistic Classification

Indo-European Roots

Montenegrin belongs to the Indo-European language family, specifically within the Balto-Slavic branch, and more narrowly, the Slavic languages. It is classified under the South Slavic subgroup, sharing common ancestry and structural features with its closely related sister languages.

Dialectal Basis

The language is primarily based on the Shtokavian dialect, a prestige supradialect of Serbo-Croatian. More specifically, it draws from the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect, which is also foundational for Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian. Additionally, the Zeta–Raška dialect, prevalent in southern Montenegro, contributes to the linguistic landscape.

Writing Systems

Dual Alphabets

Montenegrin utilizes both the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. Proponents of the distinct Montenegrin language often favor the Latin alphabet, specifically Gaj's Latin alphabet. The Cyrillic script used is closely related to Serbian Cyrillic.

Distinctive Letters

A notable feature of the proposed Montenegrin orthography is the inclusion of two additional letters in both alphabets: ⟨Ś⟩ (Latin) and ⟨С́⟩ (Cyrillic) to represent the voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative, and ⟨ź⟩ (Latin) and ⟨З́⟩ (Cyrillic) for the voiced alveolar affricate. These are intended to replace the digraphs 'sj' and 'zj' respectively, though their adoption and technical implementation have faced challenges.

The collation order for the Latin alphabet, including the proposed unique letters:

Latin Collation Order
Latin	A	B	C	Č	Ć	D	Dž	Đ	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	Lj	M	N	Nj	O	P	R	S	Š	Š	T	U	V	Z	Ž	Ź
Cyrillic	А	Б	Ц	Ч	Ћ	Д	Џ	Ђ	Е	Ф	Г	Х	И	Ј	К	Л	Љ	М	Н	Њ	О	П	Р	С	Ш	С́	Т	У	В	З	Ж	З́

The collation order for the Cyrillic alphabet, reflecting the proposed unique letters:

Cyrillic Collation Order
Cyrillic	А	Б	В	Г	Д	Ђ	Е	Ж	З	З́	И	Ј	К	Л	Љ	М	Н	Њ	О	П	Р	С	С́	Т	Ћ	У	Ф	Х	Ц	Ч	Џ	Ш
Latin	A	B	V	G	D	Đ	E	Ž	Z	Ź	I	J	K	L	Lj	M	N	Nj	O	P	R	S	Š	T	Ć	U	F	H	C	Č	Dž	Š

Standardization Efforts

Formalization Process

The process of standardizing Montenegrin involved the establishment of the Board for Standardization of the Montenegrin Language by the government in 2008. This body has worked on developing official documents and a Montenegrin Spelling Book, aiming to align the language with international norms. The assignment of ISO codes [cnr] in 2017 marked a significant step in its international recognition.

Challenges and Debates

The standardization process has not been without controversy. Disagreements exist regarding the distinctiveness of Montenegrin from other standard varieties of Serbo-Croatian, and the proposed introduction of new letters has faced technical and linguistic opposition. The political context significantly influences these debates, with language often serving as a marker of national identity.

Speakers and Demographics

Census Data Insights

According to the 2023 census, approximately 34.5% of Montenegro's population declared Montenegrin as their native language, while 43.2% identified Serbian as their mother tongue. This data highlights the linguistic diversity and the ongoing discussion surrounding language identity in the country.

Sociolinguistic Context

The question of language in Montenegro is deeply intertwined with national identity and political discourse. While linguists may view Montenegrin as a variety within a pluricentric Serbo-Croatian system, proponents emphasize the right to self-determination and the distinct cultural and historical context that shapes the language's identity.

Literary Heritage

Key Figures and Works

Montenegrin literary tradition is rich, with significant works from authors like Petar II Petrović Njegoš, whose epic poem "The Mountain Wreath" (Gorski vijenac) is a cornerstone of Montenegrin literature. Marko Miljanov and others also contributed significantly, often writing in the vernacular, which reflected the evolving linguistic landscape.

Dialectal Influence

The literary language has historically shown influences from various dialects, including the Zeta–South Raška dialect characteristic of Montenegro, and the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect that formed the basis of the Serbian standard. Adaptations made by authors like Njegoš to align with Vuk Karadžić's reforms illustrate the dynamic interplay between vernacular usage and standardization efforts.

Language Politics

Self-Determination and Identity

The assertion of Montenegrin as a distinct language is often framed as a matter of national self-determination. Proponents argue that it reflects the right of the Montenegrin people to name and define their own language, rather than an attempt to artificially create a new one. This perspective aligns with the broader movement for Montenegrin independence.

Common Language Debate

A significant development in this discourse is the Declaration on the Common Language, signed by prominent figures from across the former Yugoslavia. This declaration posits the existence of a single, polycentric standard language used in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Montenegro, similar to other pluricentric languages like German or English. This view challenges the notion of Montenegrin as a fundamentally separate language.

Sample Text

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights serves as a benchmark for linguistic comparison. Below are its renderings in Montenegrin (Latin and Cyrillic scripts) and English, illustrating the language's structure and vocabulary.

"Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima. Ona su obdarena razumom i savješću i jedni prema drugima treba da postupaju u duhu bratstva."

Montenegrin Cyrillic:

"Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима. Она су обдарена разумом и савјешћу и једни према другима треба да поступају у духу братства."

English:

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

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References

(in Serbian) "PoÄelo otpuÅ¡tanje profesora srpskog", Glas Javnosti, 17 September 2004.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Montenegrin language Wikipedia page

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This content has been generated by an AI model and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. It is based on data sourced from Wikipedia and aims to provide a comprehensive overview. However, the AI cannot guarantee the absolute accuracy, completeness, or timeliness of the information presented.

This is not professional linguistic advice. The information provided herein should not be considered a substitute for consultation with qualified linguists, historians, or cultural experts. Language is a dynamic and complex field, and interpretations can vary. Always consult authoritative sources and experts for definitive linguistic analysis or historical context.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided. Users are encouraged to cross-reference information with primary sources and academic research.

Montenegrin Unveiled

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

What is Montenegrin? 🗣️

🔗 A Standard Variety

🏛️ Official Status and Recognition

👥 Speaker Demographics

Historical Trajectory 📜

⏳ Early Literacy and Zeta Period

✍️ Vernacular and Standardization Efforts

🔄 Yugoslav Era and Linguistic Shifts

Linguistic Classification 🌳

🌍 Indo-European Roots

🗺️ Dialectal Basis

Writing Systems ✍️

🔤 Dual Alphabets

➕ Distinctive Letters

Standardization Efforts 📏

📜 Formalization Process

⚖️ Challenges and Debates

Speakers and Demographics 👥

📊 Census Data Insights

💬 Sociolinguistic Context

Literary Heritage 📚

📖 Key Figures and Works

📜 Dialectal Influence

Language Politics 🏛️

⚖️ Self-Determination and Identity

🤝 Common Language Debate

Sample Text 📄

📜 Universal Declaration of Human Rights

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References

📜 References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is Montenegrin?

A Standard Variety

Official Status and Recognition

Speaker Demographics

Historical Trajectory

Early Literacy and Zeta Period

Vernacular and Standardization Efforts

Yugoslav Era and Linguistic Shifts

Linguistic Classification

Indo-European Roots

Dialectal Basis

Writing Systems

Dual Alphabets

Distinctive Letters

Standardization Efforts

Formalization Process

Challenges and Debates

Speakers and Demographics

Census Data Insights

Sociolinguistic Context

Literary Heritage

Key Figures and Works

Dialectal Influence

Language Politics

Self-Determination and Identity

Common Language Debate

Sample Text

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice