Who was Muhammad and what is his primary significance in Islam?

Muhammad was an Arab religious, military, and political leader who founded Islam. According to Islamic belief, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach monotheistic teachings, and he is considered by Muslims to be the Seal of the Prophets. His teachings and normative examples, along with the Quran, form the basis of Islamic religious belief.

When and where was Muhammad born, and what was his lineage?

Muhammad was born in Mecca, Arabia, around 570 CE. He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe, a prominent lineage in western Arabia.

What were the circumstances of Muhammad's early life regarding his parents and guardians?

Muhammad's father, Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, died before Muhammad's birth. His mother, Amina bint Wahb, died when he was six years old, leaving him an orphan. He was then raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and later his paternal uncle, Abu Talib.

What is the meaning of the name Muhammad, and what other names or titles is he known by?

The name Muhammad means "praiseworthy" in Arabic. He was also known by the epithet "al-Amin," meaning "faithful," during his youth, and is referred to in Islam as "Rasul Allah" (Messenger of God) and "Khatam al-Nabiyyin" (Seal of the Prophets).

According to Islamic tradition, when did Muhammad receive his first revelation, and from whom?

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad received his first revelation around 610 CE, when he was 40 years old, in the Cave of Hira. He reported being visited by the archangel Gabriel, who conveyed the first verses of the Quran to him.

How did Muhammad begin his public preaching, and what was the initial reaction?

In 613 CE, Muhammad began publicly preaching the revelations he received, proclaiming the oneness of God (Allah) and submission to Him as the right way of life. Initially, his followers were few, and they faced persecution from the Meccan polytheists for 13 years.

What was the significance of the Hijra for the Islamic calendar and Muhammad's community?

The Hijra, Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina (then Yathrib) in 622 CE, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri calendar. In Medina, Muhammad established unity among the tribes through the Constitution of Medina, laying the foundation for the first Islamic state.

What role did the Quran play in Muhammad's life and Islamic belief?

The Quran is believed by Muslims to be the verbatim word of God revealed to Muhammad through Gabriel. These revelations, received until Muhammad's death, form the verses of the Quran, which, along with Muhammad's Sunnah (normative examples), serve as the basis for Islamic religious belief and law.

What are hadith, and how are they viewed as a source in Islam?

Hadith are accounts of Muhammad's verbal and physical teachings and traditions. Compiled generations after his death, they are considered by Muslim scholars to be important sources of Islamic law, often prioritized over biographical literature due to their traditional chains of transmission (isnad).

What challenges did Muhammad and his early followers face in Mecca?

In Mecca, Muhammad and his followers faced significant persecution from the Quraysh tribe. This included social and economic boycotts, verbal abuse, and threats of violence, which led some followers to emigrate to Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia) for safety.

What was the 'Satanic Verses' incident, and how is it viewed differently by Muslims and Western scholars?

The 'Satanic Verses' incident refers to a narrative where Satan allegedly tempted Muhammad to utter verses that acknowledged Meccan goddesses. While early Islamic biographers documented this, many modern Muslim scholars reject it due to the doctrine of Muhammad's infallibility (Ismah), whereas most European biographers accept it based on the 'criterion of embarrassment'.

What was the significance of Muhammad's visit to Ta'if?

In 619 CE, after the deaths of his wife Khadija and uncle Abu Talib, Muhammad visited Ta'if seeking support. However, he was met with rejection and hostility, including being pelted with stones, which led to his eventual return to Mecca under the protection of Mut'im ibn 'Adiy.

What is the traditional Islamic account of the Isra' and Mi'raj?

The Isra' and Mi'raj are believed by Muslims to be two parts of a miraculous night journey. The Isra' is the journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, and the Mi'raj is the ascension from Jerusalem through the heavens to meet God. While the Quran mentions a night journey from a revered place of worship, the details of the ascension are primarily found in hadith and sira literature.

What was the purpose and outcome of the second pledge at al-Aqabah in 622 CE?

At al-Aqabah, seventy-five individuals from Medina met Muhammad and pledged their loyalty, including a commitment to protect him as they would their own families. This event, often called the 'pledge of war,' was crucial in paving the way for Muhammad and his followers to migrate to Medina.

What was the significance of the Constitution of Medina?

The Constitution of Medina, likely a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, was a legal covenant that addressed tribal matters in Medina. It established rules for peaceful coexistence among Muslims, Jewish tribes, and other inhabitants, guaranteeing religious freedom for Jews and outlining mutual defense obligations.

What led to the beginning of armed conflict between the Muslims and the Meccans?

The conflict began after the Hijra when the Meccans seized the property of Muslim emigrants who had relocated to Medina. Subsequently, Muhammad received Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans to defend themselves and their faith.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Badr in 624 CE?

The Battle of Badr was a significant victory for the Muslims, who were outnumbered by the Meccan forces. This victory was seen as divine confirmation of their faith and greatly boosted Muhammad's standing and the morale of his followers.

What happened during the Battle of Uhud, and what was a key social consequence?

In the Battle of Uhud (625 CE), the Muslims initially held their ground but suffered losses due to disobedience from some archers. The battle resulted in casualties among the Muslims, leaving many women without male protectors. This led to a revelation allowing Muslim men to marry up to four wives, marking the beginning of polygyny in Islam.

What led to the siege and expulsion of the Banu Qaynuqa, one of Medina's Jewish tribes?

According to Muslim sources, an altercation involving a goldsmith and a Muslim woman, or possibly an incident involving Hamza and Ali, led Muhammad to lay siege to the Banu Qaynuqa. After their surrender, they were exiled from Medina, with their property being distributed among the Muslims.

What was the nature of the conflict with the Banu Nadir tribe?

After the Banu Qaynuqa's expulsion, Muhammad initiated a siege against the Banu Nadir, reportedly due to a plot to assassinate him. The tribe eventually capitulated and was allowed to leave Medina, relinquishing their property to the Muslims.

What was the Battle of the Trench, and what was the fate of the Banu Qurayza tribe afterward?

The Battle of the Trench (627 CE) involved a large coalition of Meccans and allied tribes besieging Medina. The Muslims, advised by Salman the Persian, dug a trench to defend the city, successfully repelling the attackers. Following the siege, the Banu Qurayza tribe, accused of treachery for allegedly collaborating with the Meccans, surrendered and faced a harsh judgment, with most of their men executed.

What was the significance of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in 628 CE?

The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was a ten-year truce established between Muhammad and the Quraysh. Key terms included a cessation of hostilities, provisions for returning defectors, freedom for tribes to ally with either side, and permission for Muslims to make an unopposed pilgrimage to Mecca the following year.

What happened during the Invasion of Khaybar?

Invasion of Khaybar, a Jewish oasis north of Medina, occurred roughly ten weeks after Hudaybiyyah. After a strenuous battle, the Muslims captured the city and its spoils. Muhammad took Safiyya bint Huyayy, the wife of a slain Jewish leader, as his own, and she later converted to Islam and married him.

What were the terms of Muhammad's entry into Mecca in 630 CE?

During his conquest of Mecca, Muhammad declared an amnesty for past offenses, except for specific individuals guilty of murder or inciting war. He proceeded to destroy the idols in and around the Kaaba, although traditions vary on whether he personally spared images of Mary and Jesus.

What was the purpose of the Expedition to Tabuk?

The Expedition to Tabuk, undertaken about ten months after the conquest of Mecca, was directed towards the Byzantine Syrian border provinces. Potential motives included avenging the defeat at Mu'tah and acquiring booty. Upon reaching Tabuk, Muhammad encountered no hostile forces but secured tribute from local chiefs.

What were the main points of Muhammad's Farewell Sermon during the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632 CE?

During his Farewell Pilgrimage in 632 CE, Muhammad delivered a sermon emphasizing the prohibition of usury and pre-Islamic vendettas, the brotherhood of all Muslims, and the adoption of twelve lunar months without intercalation. This event is considered a summary of his core teachings.

When and under what circumstances did Muhammad die?

Muhammad died on June 8, 632 CE, in Medina, at the age of 61 or 62. He had fallen ill a few months after his Farewell Pilgrimage. According to tradition, he suffered from a severe headache and fever, possibly related to food he had eaten at Khaybar.

Where is Muhammad buried, and what is significant about the site?

Muhammad was buried in Aisha's house in Medina, where he died. This location was later incorporated into the Prophet's Mosque, and the Green Dome was built over his tomb. Adjacent tombs include those of his companions Abu Bakr and Umar, and an empty tomb believed to await Jesus.

What was the immediate issue following Muhammad's death regarding succession?

Following Muhammad's death, a disagreement arose over his successor. Umar ibn al-Khattab nominated Abu Bakr, who was confirmed as the first Caliph. However, some companions believed Ali ibn Abi Talib was designated successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm.

What was the state of the Middle East prior to the Muslim conquests, and how did this influence their success?

Before the Muslim conquests, the Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sasanian empires, whose prolonged wars had weakened them and made them unpopular. Additionally, many Christians in these regions were disaffected from the Orthodox Church, creating conditions favorable for the rapid expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate.

How many wives did Muhammad reportedly have, and what is notable about his marriage to Khadija?

Muhammad reportedly had thirteen wives, though the status of two is ambiguous. His marriage to Khadija, who was 40 when he was 25, lasted 25 years and was described as happy. He remained monogamous with her until her death.

What is the traditional Islamic view of Muhammad's miracles?

Islamic tradition attributes several miracles to Muhammad, preserved in hadith and sira literature. One notable miracle is the splitting of the Moon, which early tafsir compilations describe as a literal event.

How is Muhammad's Sunnah important in Islamic practice?

The Sunnah, representing Muhammad's actions and sayings, serves as a model for Muslims and has significantly influenced Islamic culture. Many details of major Islamic rituals, such as daily prayers and fasting, are found primarily in the Sunnah rather than the Quran.

What is the general Islamic perspective on depicting Muhammad?

Due to hadith prohibiting images of sentient beings, Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad to prevent idolatry. Islamic art typically focuses on calligraphy, Quranic inscriptions, or geometric designs, especially in mosques. While historical depictions exist, they are rare and often show Muhammad veiled or symbolically represented.

What social reforms are attributed to Muhammad's teachings in early Islamic society?

Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes improved upon the pre-Islamic Arab status quo, particularly in areas like social security, family structure, and the rights of women and children. Islam denounced aristocratic privilege and promoted a meritocratic ideal, with economic reforms addressing the plight of the poor through measures like zakat (alms tax).

What were some European intellectual perspectives on Muhammad?

Some European thinkers, like Guillaume Postel and Gottfried Leibniz, presented more positive views, esteeming Muhammad as a valid prophet or recognizing his adherence to natural religion. Henri de Boulainvilliers described him as a gifted political leader and just lawmaker, while Napoleon Bonaparte admired him as a model conqueror and lawmaker.

What criticisms have been leveled against Muhammad throughout history?

Criticism of Muhammad dates back to his contemporaries and includes questioning his legitimacy as a prophet, his moral conduct, his marriages, his ownership of slaves, his treatment of enemies, and his approach to doctrinal matters. Medieval Christians sometimes labeled him a false prophet or the Antichrist.

How is Muhammad viewed within Sufism?

Within Sufism, Muhammad is revered not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being, embodying the inner meaning of the Quran. All Sufi orders trace their spiritual lineage back to Muhammad, viewing his life as a model for spiritual development.

How is Muhammad regarded in Sikhism and the Baháʼí Faith?

In Sikhism, Muhammad is honored as a divine messenger. In the Baháʼí Faith, he is venerated as one of the Manifestations of God and the final prophet of the Adamic cycle, though his teachings are considered superseded by those of Baháʼu'lláh.

What is the significance of the phrase 'peace be upon him' (PBUH) in relation to Muhammad's name?

When Muslims say or write Muhammad's name, they often follow it with the Arabic phrase 'may God honor him and grant him peace' (ṣallā llāhu ʿalayhi wa-sallam) or its English equivalent 'peace be upon him' (PBUH). This is a customary expression of reverence and respect.

What is the historical debate surrounding the reliability of early biographical sources for Muhammad?

The reliability of early biographical sources for Muhammad, written centuries after his life, is debated by academics due to an 'oral gap.' Some scholars, like John Burton, suggest that very little verifiable historical information about Muhammad's early life can be recovered from these sparse records.

What is the traditional Islamic view regarding the Year of the Elephant and Muhammad's birth?

Islamic tradition states that Muhammad's birth year coincided with the Year of the Elephant, when Abraha, the Aksumite viceroy, unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Mecca. However, recent studies challenge this timing, suggesting the expedition occurred earlier.

What was Muhammad's role in the rebuilding of the Kaaba around 605 CE?

Around 605 CE, Muhammad played a crucial role in resolving a dispute over who should place the Black Stone back into the Kaaba during its reconstruction. He proposed that the first person to enter the Kaaba's court would arbitrate, and when Muhammad arrived first, he mediated the process, ensuring joint elevation of the stone.

What is the Islamic perspective on Muhammad's relationship with the Quran?

Muslims believe the Quran represents the verbatim words of God revealed to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel. While the Quran addresses Muhammad directly, it provides limited biographical details about him, focusing more on divine messages and stories of earlier prophets.

What was the outcome of the Banu Mustaliq raid?

During the raid on the Banu Mustaliq, Muslims captured 2,000 camels, 500 sheep, and 200 women. The Muslim soldiers sought permission to practice coitus interruptus with the captive women, to which Muhammad reportedly agreed, stating they were not obligated to forbear from it.

What was the significance of the change in the Qibla (direction of prayer) in Medina?

In 624 CE, while praying in Medina, Muhammad received revelations directing him to face Mecca instead of Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted the prayer direction, and his followers followed suit, establishing the Kaaba in Mecca as the Qibla for Muslims.

What was the outcome of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah for the Muslims regarding pilgrimage?

The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah allowed Muslims to make an unopposed pilgrimage to Mecca the following year. This provision was significant as it granted Muslims access to their most sacred site, even though it was under Meccan control at the time.

What happened to the Jewish tribes of Medina during Muhammad's time in Medina?

Muhammad had conflicts with Medina's Jewish tribes, including the Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, and Banu Qurayza. These conflicts led to the expulsion or severe punishment of these tribes, with the Banu Qurayza facing execution for alleged treachery after the Battle of the Trench.

What was the impact of the Battle of Hunayn on the Hawazin tribe?

Following the conquest of Mecca, the Banu Hawazin tribe gathered to fight Muhammad's forces. Although initially surprised by the Muslims at Hunayn, the Muslims eventually overpowered them, capturing their families and possessions. Subsequently, the Hawazin converted to Islam after Muhammad returned their captive women and children.

What is the Islamic view on Muhammad's succession, and what event is cited by Shia Muslims?

Following Muhammad's death, a succession dispute arose between Abu Bakr, supported by Umar, and Ali ibn Abi Talib. Shia Muslims cite the event at Ghadir Khumm, where they believe Muhammad designated Ali as his successor.

Muhammad Wiki: The Illuminated Path: A Scholarly Exploration of Muhammad

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

When you are ready...
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮

Overview

Founder of Islam

Muhammad (c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, military, and political leader who founded Islam.^[a]^[b] Muslims believe he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of earlier prophets like Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.^[d] He is revered as the Seal of the Prophets, and his teachings and normative examples form the basis of Islamic belief alongside the Quran.

Prophetic Lineage

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca to the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. He is considered the final prophet in a line that includes figures central to Judaism and Christianity. His role was to restore the pure monotheistic faith of Abraham, which Muslims believe had been corrupted over time.^[1]

Historical Context

Muhammad emerged in 7th-century Arabia, a region characterized by tribal divisions and diverse religious practices, including polytheism, Judaism, and Christianity. His message of strict monotheism and social reform profoundly impacted the Arabian Peninsula and laid the foundation for a global civilization.^[d]

Origins and Early Life

Birth and Family

Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim^[38] was born in Mecca^[39]^[1] around 570 CE, likely in the month of Rabi' al-Awwal.^[40] He belonged to the distinguished Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe.^[41] His father, Abdullah, died before his birth, and his mother, Amina, died when he was six.^[55]

Guardianship and Upbringing

Orphaned at a young age, Muhammad was first cared for by his paternal grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and then by his uncle, Abu Talib.^[58] He was known for his integrity and trustworthiness, earning the epithet "al-Amin" (the faithful) in his youth.^[46]

Marriage to Khadija

At age 25, Muhammad married Khadija, a wealthy businesswoman and his relative. She was 40 years old at the time. This marriage provided him with financial stability and emotional support, and he remained monogamous with her until her death.^[67]

The Genesis of Revelation

The Cave of Hira

The financial security from his marriage allowed Muhammad to spend periods in solitary contemplation in the Cave of Hira, near Mecca.^[73] Around 610 CE, at the age of 40, he reported his first encounter with the Archangel Gabriel.^[1]

First Revelation

According to Islamic tradition, Gabriel commanded Muhammad to "Read." After Muhammad's repeated confessions of illiteracy, Gabriel recited the first verses of the Quran (Quran 96:1-5), marking the beginning of his prophethood.^[75]^[76]

Support and Confirmation

Initially distressed and uncertain, Muhammad found reassurance in his wife Khadija and her cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal, who identified the divine presence as an angel.^[83]^[82] The cessation and subsequent return of revelations caused Muhammad significant emotional turmoil, leading him to contemplate suicide.^[89]

The Meccan Period

Public Preaching

Around 613 CE, Muhammad began publicly preaching the revelations, proclaiming the oneness of God (Allah) and the need for submission (Islam).^[3]^[4] His early followers were primarily from the lower social strata, including women, freedmen, and slaves.^[97]

Persecution and Opposition

The Quraysh leadership opposed Muhammad's message, viewing it as a threat to their social order, economic interests, and traditional polytheistic beliefs. This led to severe persecution of the early Muslims.^[103]^[104]

The Satanic Verses Incident

A controversial incident, known as the Satanic Verses, is reported by early biographers. It suggests Muhammad momentarily included verses acknowledging Meccan goddesses, which he later retracted, attributing them to Satanic influence.^[128]^[g]^[h] While accepted by many early historians, its historicity is debated, and modern Muslim scholarship generally rejects it.^[127]

The Hijra: Migration to Medina

Emigration

Facing escalating persecution, Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathrib (later Medina) in 622 CE. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.^[2]^[161]

Pledges at Aqaba

Prior to the Hijra, Muhammad received pledges of support from delegations from Medina at Aqaba. These agreements secured protection for him and his followers, paving the way for the establishment of a Muslim community in the city.^[153]^[156]

Constitution of Medina

Upon arrival in Medina, Muhammad established a pact known as the Constitution of Medina. This document outlined the rights and responsibilities of various communities within the oasis, including Muslims, Jews, and other tribes, establishing a framework for coexistence and mutual defense.^[169]

Establishing the Community in Medina

The First Mosque

Muhammad oversaw the construction of the first mosque in Medina, which served not only as a place of worship but also as a community center for political and social gatherings. It was here that the practice of facing Mecca during prayer (Qibla) was established.^[177]

The Call to Prayer

To convene the community for prayer, Muhammad adopted the practice of the adhan (call to prayer), selecting Bilal ibn Rabah, known for his resonant voice, to deliver it.^[168]

Governance and Alliances

Muhammad's leadership extended to governance and diplomacy. He formed alliances with various Bedouin tribes and managed inter-tribal relations within Medina, laying the groundwork for the nascent Islamic state.^[152]

Conflicts and Consolidation

Early Engagements

The early Muslim community faced numerous conflicts with Meccan forces and other tribes. Key battles include Badr (624 CE), a decisive Muslim victory, and Uhud (625 CE), which resulted in significant Muslim casualties.^[35]^[203]

Sieges and Exiles

Muhammad also engaged in sieges against Jewish tribes, such as the Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Nadir, leading to their expulsion from Medina. These actions were often justified by alleged breaches of treaties or assassination plots.^[192]^[193]

The Battle of the Trench

In 627 CE, a large confederation of Meccans and allied tribes besieged Medina. Muhammad's forces successfully defended the city by digging a trench around the vulnerable areas, a tactic credited to Salman the Persian.^[222]

Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

A significant diplomatic achievement was the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in 628 CE, a ten-year truce with Mecca. This treaty, though initially perceived as unfavorable by some Muslims, allowed for a period of peace and facilitated the spread of Islam.^[192]

Sources and Historicity

Early Islamic Historiography

The earliest biographical accounts of Muhammad emerged in the 8th and 9th centuries CE, primarily through the works of scholars like Ibn Ishaq, Ibn Hisham, and al-Waqidi. These narratives, often transmitted orally before being written, form the basis of traditional Islamic biography (Sira).^[6]^[7]

Scholarly Debate

The reliability and historicity of these early sources are subjects of considerable academic debate. Challenges include the "oral gap" between events and their recording, potential biases, and the development of hadith collections. Some scholars emphasize the need for critical evaluation, while others accept the authenticity of much of the traditional material.^[8]^[12]

Quran and Sunnah

The Quran, believed by Muslims to be the literal word of God revealed to Muhammad, and the Sunnah (his practices and teachings), documented in hadith, are crucial sources for understanding his life and teachings. Muslim scholars traditionally place high value on the chains of transmission (isnad) for hadith, though Western scholarship has raised questions about their verifiability and potential for fabrication.^[24]^[28]

Legacy and Influence

Foundation of Islam

Muhammad's primary legacy is the establishment of Islam, a monotheistic religion that rapidly spread across the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. His role as the final prophet and the recipient of the Quran cemented his central position in Islamic theology.^[d]

Quran and Sunnah

The Quran, believed by Muslims to be the literal word of God revealed to Muhammad, and the Sunnah (his practices and teachings), documented in hadith, serve as the foundational texts for Islamic law, theology, and practice.^[3]

Influence on Other Traditions

Muhammad is recognized in other religious traditions as well. Sikhism views him as an inspirational figure, the Druze faith considers him one of seven main prophets, and the Baháʼí Faith regards him as a Manifestation of God.^[20]

Teacher's Corner

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

Edit and Print Materials from this study in the wiki2web studio

Click here to open the "Muhammad" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit

Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Learn about muhammad while playing the wiki2web Clarity Challenge game.

Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!

Play now

Explore More Topics

Discover other topics to study!

atlantic coast conference

prime minister of the netherlands

burke mountain ski area

oghuz turks

modern liberalism in the united states

References

See also Quran 43:31 cited in EoI; Muhammad.

"Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism." (The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35).

Raven, Wim (2006). "SÄ«ra and the QurÊ¾Än". Encyclopaedia of the QurÊ¾Än. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 29â49

Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, p. 338, I. B. Tauris.

Quran 17:106

Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 153, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad

Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 154, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad

See:

Wensinck & Rippen 2002

Emory C. Bogle 1998, p. 7.

Rodinson 2002, p. 71

á¹¢allÄbÄ« 2005, pp. 460â461.

Muhammad: Biography of the Prophet. Karen Armstrong. 2023

See:

Rodinson 2021, p. 176

Gabriel 2007, pp. 112â114

Al-Bukhari 1997, Vol. 5, no. 4037

See:

Rodinson 2002, pp. 209â211

Watt 1961, p. 169

Uri Rubin, Quraysh, Encyclopaedia of the Quran.

Nemoy, "Barakat Ahmad's "Muhammad and the Jews", p. 325. Nemoy is sourcing Ahmad's Muhammad and the Jews.

Watt, Aisha, Encyclopaedia of Islam.

Quran 110:1â3.

M. A. al-Bakhit, Tabuk, Encyclopaedia of Islam.

Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Wives of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Quran.

Esposito 1998, p. 12; Nigosian 2004, p. 17.

A. J. Wensinck, MuÊ¿dÌ²jÌ²iza, Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 7, p. 295

Quran 21:107

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica, Muhammad, p. 13.

Islamic ethics, Encyclopedia of Ethics.

Talk Of Napoleon At St. Helena 1903, pp. 279â280.

Ian Almond, History of Islam in German Thought: From Leibniz to Nietzsche, Routledge 2009, p. 93.

Tolan, John. "The Prophet Muhammad: A Model of Monotheistic Reform for Nineteenth-Century Ashkenaz." Common Knowledge, vol. 24 no. 2, 2018, pp. 256â279.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Muhammad Wikipedia page

Feedback & Support

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Scholarly Disclaimer

Important Notice

This content has been generated by an AI, drawing upon historical and academic sources. It is intended for educational and informational purposes, presented from a scholarly perspective. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the provided source material, users are encouraged to consult primary sources and engage in critical analysis.

This is not theological or devotional material. The information presented here is for academic study and does not constitute religious doctrine or endorsement. Always consult authoritative religious texts and scholars for theological understanding.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any interpretations or actions taken based on the information provided herein.

The Illuminated Path

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview ℹ️

🕌 Founder of Islam

📜 Prophetic Lineage

🌍 Historical Context

Origins and Early Life 🌱

👶 Birth and Family

👨‍👦 Guardianship and Upbringing

🤝 Marriage to Khadija

The Genesis of Revelation ✨

⛰️ The Cave of Hira

🗣️ First Revelation

❤️ Support and Confirmation

The Meccan Period 🏛️

📣 Public Preaching

⚔️ Persecution and Opposition

⚖️ The Satanic Verses Incident

The Hijra: Migration to Medina ➡️

🚶 Emigration

🤝 Pledges at Aqaba

📜 Constitution of Medina

Establishing the Community in Medina 🏘️

🕌 The First Mosque

📢 The Call to Prayer

⚖️ Governance and Alliances

Conflicts and Consolidation ⚔️

🛡️ Early Engagements

🌳 Sieges and Exiles

🧱 The Battle of the Trench

🕊️ Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

Sources and Historicity 🔍

📚 Early Islamic Historiography

❓ Scholarly Debate

📜 Quran and Sunnah

Legacy and Influence 🌟

🌐 Foundation of Islam

📖 Quran and Sunnah

🤝 Influence on Other Traditions

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Scholarly Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

Founder of Islam

Prophetic Lineage

Historical Context

Origins and Early Life

Birth and Family

Guardianship and Upbringing

Marriage to Khadija

The Genesis of Revelation

The Cave of Hira

First Revelation

Support and Confirmation

The Meccan Period

Public Preaching

Persecution and Opposition

The Satanic Verses Incident

The Hijra: Migration to Medina

Emigration

Pledges at Aqaba

Constitution of Medina

Establishing the Community in Medina

The First Mosque

The Call to Prayer

Governance and Alliances

Conflicts and Consolidation

Early Engagements

Sieges and Exiles

The Battle of the Trench

Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

Sources and Historicity

Early Islamic Historiography

Scholarly Debate

Quran and Sunnah

Legacy and Influence

Foundation of Islam

Quran and Sunnah

Influence on Other Traditions

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Scholarly Disclaimer

Important Notice