What was the New Deal, and during what period was it enacted in the United States?

The New Deal was a series of wide-reaching economic, social, and political reforms enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States between 1933 and 1938. It was implemented in response to the Great Depression, which had begun in 1929.

What phrase did Franklin D. Roosevelt use upon accepting the Democratic Party's presidential nomination in 1932, and what was his underlying belief about the cause of the Great Depression?

Upon accepting the Democratic Party's presidential nomination in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt promised "a new deal for the American people." He believed the depression was caused by inherent market instability and insufficient demand, necessitating massive government intervention to stabilize and rationalize the economy.

What were the "3 R's" that characterized Roosevelt's "First New Deal"?

The "First New Deal," enacted from Roosevelt's first hundred days in office in 1933 until 1935, focused on the "3 R's": relief for the unemployed and the poor, recovery of the economy to normal levels, and reforms of the financial system to prevent a recurrence of the depression.

What key legislation was passed during the First New Deal to restore confidence in the banking system, and what permanent body was established to insure deposits?

During the First New Deal, the Emergency Banking Act authorized the Federal Reserve to insure deposits, and the 1933 Banking Act made this permanent by establishing the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). These measures aimed to restore public confidence in banks.

What were some of the significant agencies and programs created during the First New Deal to address economic issues and unemployment?

The First New Deal created several key agencies: the National Recovery Administration (NRA) to establish codes of fair competition, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to protect investors, and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) to raise rural incomes. Public works programs like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) were also established to provide jobs and promote development.

Despite the initial successes of the First New Deal, what economic indicators remained problematic by 1935?

Although the First New Deal helped many find work and restored confidence in the financial system, by 1935, stock prices were still below pre-Depression levels, and unemployment remained high, exceeding 20 percent of the workforce.

What were the main goals and key initiatives of the "Second New Deal" (1935-1938)?

The "Second New Deal" focused on job creation and improving the conditions for the elderly, workers, and the poor. Key initiatives included the Works Progress Administration (WPA) for public works and arts, the National Labor Relations Act to protect union rights, and the Social Security Act to provide pensions and benefits.

What significant labor rights and protections were established by the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938?

The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 prohibited oppressive child labor and established a national 40-hour work week and a minimum wage, aiming to improve working conditions and worker purchasing power.

What led to the decline of New Deal legislative momentum in 1938, and what political shift occurred in Congress?

In 1938, the Republican Party gained seats in Congress, forming a coalition with conservative Democrats who opposed further New Deal legislation. Some New Deal programs were also declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, contributing to the shift.

How did the New Deal reorient the Democratic Party's base, and what coalition did it form?

The New Deal created a political realignment, reorienting the Democratic Party's base into the "New Deal coalition." This coalition included labor unions, blue-collar workers, racial minorities, white Southerners, and intellectuals, forming a powerful liberal bloc that dominated presidential elections for decades.

What was the economic situation in the United States between 1929 and 1933, according to the provided text?

From 1929 to 1933, the U.S. experienced severe economic collapse: manufacturing output fell by one-third, prices dropped by 20% causing deflation, unemployment surged from 4% to 25%, and nearly half of the nation's work-power was unused. This period is also referred to as the "Great Contraction."

What was the state of social safety nets in the U.S. before the New Deal?

Before the New Deal, the United States lacked a national safety net, including public unemployment insurance or Social Security. Relief for the poor was primarily the responsibility of families, private charities, and local governments, which proved insufficient as the depression worsened.

How did the New Deal address the banking crisis through Roosevelt's "fireside chats" and the Emergency Banking Act?

President Roosevelt addressed the banking crisis by delivering "fireside chats" on the radio to explain the situation and government actions to the public. He then closed all banks temporarily and passed the Emergency Banking Act, which allowed sound banks to reopen under Treasury supervision with federal loans, helping to stabilize the system.

What was the purpose of the Glass-Steagall Act, and how did it impact banking stability?

The Glass-Steagall Act aimed to regulate banking by limiting commercial bank securities activities and affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms. It also established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured deposits up to $2,500, significantly increasing banking stability and reducing bank runs.

How did the New Deal reform the nation's monetary policy by addressing the gold standard?

The New Deal reformed monetary policy by suspending the gold standard. This involved forbidding gold exports, mandating the exchange of gold coinage for dollars, and changing the nominal price of gold, which allowed the Federal Reserve to increase the money supply and stimulate the economy.

What was the significance of the Securities Act of 1933 and the subsequent establishment of the SEC?

The Securities Act of 1933 required companies to disclose balance sheets, profit and loss statements, and officer compensation for firms whose securities were publicly traded. The subsequent establishment of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in 1934 aimed to regulate the stock market and prevent corporate abuses related to securities sales and reporting.

How did the New Deal programs contribute to public works and infrastructure development?

New Deal programs, particularly the Public Works Administration (PWA) created by the NIRA, funded the construction of numerous public works. These included government buildings, airports, hospitals, schools, roads, bridges, and dams, significantly shaping the American landscape and creating jobs.

What were the primary goals of the New Deal's farm and rural programs, and what was a key piece of legislation enacted?

The New Deal prioritized rural areas, aiming to raise farm prices and incomes, which were severely depressed. Key programs included the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) for regional development and the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), which paid farmers to reduce output, thereby raising prices and doubling average farm income by 1937.

What controversial method did the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) use to raise farm prices, and what was its fate?

The AAA aimed to create artificial scarcity by paying farmers subsidies for reducing output. This led to millions of acres of crops being plowed under and livestock being killed. In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA unconstitutional, though a similar program was later enacted and upheld.

How did the Works Progress Administration (WPA) contribute to employment and infrastructure, and what other sectors did it support?

The WPA, created in 1935, aimed to return the unemployed to the workforce, employing over 8.5 million people who built extensive infrastructure like highways, public buildings, and bridges. It also supported arts programs, employing writers, musicians, artists, and actors.

What was the impact of the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) on rural America?

The Rural Electrification Administration (REA) used cooperatives to bring electricity to rural areas. Between 1935 and 1940, the percentage of rural homes without electricity dropped significantly, from 90% to 40%, transforming rural life and economies.

What was the purpose of the Social Security Act of 1935, and how was it funded?

The Social Security Act established a permanent system of universal retirement pensions (Social Security), unemployment insurance, and welfare benefits for the handicapped and needy children. Roosevelt insisted it be funded by payroll taxes to give contributors a "legal, moral, and political right" to the benefits.

What rights did the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (Wagner Act) guarantee to workers?

The National Labor Relations Act of 1935, also known as the Wagner Act, guaranteed workers the right to organize collective bargaining units, or trade unions, of their own choice. It also established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to oversee labor-management relations.

How did the New Deal impact the housing sector, particularly through the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA)?

The New Deal aimed to stimulate private home building and increase homeownership. The HOLC helped finance mortgages, and the FHA set national standards for home construction, simplifying the mortgage process and making credit more available for home repairs and purchases.

What discriminatory practice, known as redlining, emerged from HOLC maps during the New Deal era, and what was its primary criterion?

Discriminatory redlining emerged from HOLC maps used to determine federal housing loan backing. The most significant criterion was race; neighborhoods with "inharmonious racial groups" were often marked red or yellow, explicitly limiting access to housing loans based on race.

How did the New Deal's trade liberalization policy, initiated by the Reciprocal Tariff Act of 1934, affect global trade?

The Reciprocal Tariff Act, drafted by Cordell Hull, gave the president power to negotiate bilateral trade agreements. This policy liberalized American trade and is widely credited with ushering in the era of liberal trade policy that continues to influence global commerce.

What was the "New Deal coalition" and what impact did it have on American politics?

The New Deal coalition was a political alignment that reoriented the Democratic Party's base, bringing together labor unions, blue-collar workers, racial minorities, white Southerners, and intellectuals. This group formed a powerful liberal bloc that dominated presidential elections for decades, significantly shaping American politics.

What was the purpose of Roosevelt's "court-packing plan" in 1937, and what was its outcome?

When the Supreme Court began striking down New Deal programs, Roosevelt proposed adding five new justices to the Court. This plan, known as the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937, faced significant opposition from conservative Democrats and ultimately failed to pass, though retirements allowed Roosevelt to appoint supportive justices.

How did World War II contribute to achieving full employment in the United States?

The U.S. achieved full employment after entering World War II in December 1941. Massive war spending doubled the Gross National Product (GNP), and "military Keynesianism" led factories to hire extensively, simplifying tasks and training workers, thus absorbing the slack in the labor force.

What was the "Great Compression" that occurred during the New Deal and World War II era?

The "Great Compression" refers to the significant decrease in income inequality that occurred due to full employment and high wages during the New Deal and World War II. The gap between the rich and the poor narrowed, partly due to factors like food rationing, price controls, and overtime pay.

What was the general consensus among historians regarding the New Deal's impact on the federal government's power?

Historians generally agree that the New Deal led to a dramatic increase in the power and scope of the federal government, establishing the presidency as a central authority and creating numerous agencies to protect various citizen groups.

What were some of the criticisms leveled against the New Deal programs?

Criticisms of the New Deal include claims that it vastly increased the federal debt, fostered bureaucracy and inefficiency, infringed upon free enterprise, prolonged the Great Depression (according to revisionist economists), and rescued capitalism when nationalization might have been an alternative (according to the New Left).

How did the New Deal's approach to the arts impact American culture?

The New Deal, particularly through the WPA's Federal One projects, subsidized artists, musicians, painters, and writers. These programs supported public murals, theater productions, and documentation of folklore, emphasizing themes of regionalism, social realism, and the collective power of the common person.

What was the "Black Cabinet" established during the New Deal era?

The "Black Cabinet" was a group of African Americans appointed to second-level positions in Roosevelt's administration. While these programs allocated funds to Black citizens, they often operated separately and faced limitations due to prevailing segregation and discrimination.

How did New Deal policies affect African Americans, considering both benefits and drawbacks?

While New Deal programs provided relief and jobs, often with separate but equal conditions, they did not dismantle segregation or fully address the higher unemployment rates faced by African Americans. Some policies, like the AAA, inadvertently harmed Black sharecroppers, and the NRA was criticized for displacing Black workers.

What was the general impact of the New Deal on women in the workforce?

Initially, New Deal programs primarily focused on men, assuming the husband was the breadwinner. However, programs like the WPA later hired women, particularly single mothers or those with absent husbands, often in sewing projects or administrative roles, though typically in lower-paying jobs than men.

How did the New Deal's approach to relief spending impact the federal budget and the perception of government assistance?

The New Deal significantly expanded the federal government's role in providing relief, with spending rising as a percentage of GNP. While programs like the CCC and WPA were seen as necessary emergency responses by some, they also led to debates about welfare dependency and the size of government.

What is the mainstream economic interpretation of the New Deal's role in ending the Great Depression?

Mainstream economic interpretations, particularly Keynesian ones, suggest the New Deal halted the economic collapse and ameliorated the worst of the crisis by stabilizing the financial system and providing relief. However, they often note that full employment was not achieved until World War II, and some argue Roosevelt did not fully utilize deficit spending.

What is the monetarist interpretation, notably by Milton Friedman, regarding the New Deal's effectiveness?

Monetarists like Milton Friedman argue that the New Deal's "reform" policies (like price controls and industrial codes) were harmful and prolonged the depression. However, they generally supported the "relief and recovery" aspects, particularly the expansive monetary policy that helped end deflation.

How did the New Deal's reforms in banking and securities contribute to long-term economic stability?

The New Deal's banking reforms, such as the FDIC and Glass-Steagall Act, created unprecedented stability by insuring deposits and regulating speculative activities. Securities reforms, like the Securities Act of 1933 and the SEC, aimed to prevent market abuses and ensure transparency, laying foundations for modern economic stability.

What was the "New Deal coalition" and how did it influence presidential elections?

The New Deal coalition was a diverse group of voters, including labor unions, minorities, and Southerners, who supported FDR and the Democratic Party. This coalition became the bedrock of Democratic presidential victories from the 1930s through the 1960s.

How did the New Deal's approach to federalism affect the relationship between the federal government and individual states?

The New Deal significantly expanded federal power, often providing funds to states for programs. However, this also led to debates about states' rights, with some states resisting federal policies while others, particularly in the South, used control over fund allocation to maintain segregation and existing social orders.

What criticisms were made regarding the New Deal's perceived similarities to fascist economic policies?

Some critics, including communists initially and later some historians, drew parallels between New Deal programs like the NRA and economic policies in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, suggesting a convergence in state interventionism. However, historians also highlight fundamental differences in political systems and the New Deal's origins in American reform traditions.

How did the New Deal impact the distribution of wealth and income in the United States?

The New Deal, particularly through wartime mobilization and full employment, led to a significant decrease in income inequality, often termed the "Great Compression." The gap between the rich and the poor narrowed, and the proportion of families earning low incomes fell dramatically.

What is the historical debate surrounding the New Deal's effectiveness in ending the Great Depression?

Historians debate whether the New Deal ended the Great Depression or merely alleviated its worst effects, with full employment only achieved during World War II. While some argue its policies prolonged the downturn, others credit it with stabilizing the economy, restoring hope, and implementing crucial reforms.

What role did the Federal government play in the housing sector during the New Deal?

The Federal government played a significant role in housing through the HOLC, which helped homeowners refinance mortgages, and the FHA, which set construction standards and insured loans. These initiatives aimed to stimulate the housing market and increase homeownership, though they also introduced discriminatory practices like redlining.

How did the New Deal's approach to labor relations evolve, particularly with the passage of the National Labor Relations Act?

The New Deal significantly strengthened labor relations by guaranteeing workers the right to organize and bargain collectively through unions via the National Labor Relations Act of 1935. This led to substantial growth in union membership and established a partnership between employers, employees, and the government.

What were some of the key consumer protection measures enacted during the New Deal?

The New Deal introduced several laws to protect consumers, including the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 to regulate utility companies, the Federal Power Act of 1935 to ensure reasonable service, the Natural Gas Act of 1938 to prevent exploitation by gas companies, and the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 to ensure product safety.

What lasting institutions were created by the New Deal that continue to operate today?

Several New Deal organizations remain active, including the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC), the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). The Social Security System and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) are among the largest enduring programs.

How did the New Deal's fiscal policy reflect a tension between balancing the budget and stimulating the economy?

The New Deal exhibited a tension between fiscal conservatism, championed by figures like Lewis Douglas, and the need for government spending to combat the Depression. While Roosevelt initially aimed to balance the budget, deficit spending became necessary to fund numerous programs, leading to resignations and ongoing debates about fiscal responsibility.

What was the "Franksgiving" controversy related to the New Deal?

The "Franksgiving" controversy refers to President Roosevelt's decision to move Thanksgiving Day forward by one week in 1939, from the last Thursday in November to the second-to-last Thursday. This was done to extend the Christmas shopping season, but it drew criticism from those who felt it interfered with tradition and was a political maneuver.

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Overview

Defining the New Deal

The New Deal was a comprehensive series of economic, social, and political initiatives undertaken by President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration in the United States between 1933 and 1938. It was conceived as a direct response to the profound economic and social devastation wrought by the Great Depression, which commenced in 1929.

Core Objectives: The Three R's

The New Deal's overarching strategy was encapsulated by the "3 R's":

Relief: Providing immediate aid to the unemployed and impoverished.
Recovery: Stimulating the economy to return to normal levels.
Reform: Implementing structural changes to the financial system and economy to prevent future depressions.

Economic Philosophy

Rooted in Keynesian economic principles, Roosevelt believed that the Depression stemmed from inherent market instability and insufficient aggregate demand. Consequently, substantial government intervention was deemed essential to stabilize and rationalize the economy, thereby restoring confidence and fostering growth.

Origins: The Great Depression

Economic Collapse

The period from 1929 to 1933 witnessed a catastrophic economic downturn. Manufacturing output plummeted by a third, prices fell by 20% leading to severe deflation, and unemployment surged from 4% to an staggering 25%. This "Great Contraction" meant nearly half of the nation's human work-power was idle.

Financial Instability

The banking system was particularly fragile. Without government deposit insurance, thousands of banks failed, leading to widespread panic and loss of savings. By 1933, approximately 40% of all banks had collapsed, exacerbating the economic crisis and eroding public confidence.

Societal Impact

The Depression inflicted deep psychological scars, leaving millions without income, savings, or hope. Existing social safety nets were virtually non-existent, with relief efforts primarily falling to families, charities, and local governments, which were overwhelmed by the scale of the crisis.

Campaign Promise

"A New Deal for the American People"

During his 1932 presidential campaign, Franklin D. Roosevelt famously pledged "a new deal for the American people." This phrase, reportedly coined by an advisor, encapsulated his commitment to bold, experimental government action to address the nation's dire circumstances, contrasting sharply with the perceived inaction of the Hoover administration.

"Throughout the nation men and women, forgotten in the political philosophy of the Government, look to us here for guidance and for more equitable opportunity to share in the distribution of national wealth... I pledge myself to a new deal for the American people. This is more than a political campaign. It is a call to arms."

— Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1932

Public Confidence

Roosevelt's optimistic demeanor and clear communication, particularly through his radio "fireside chats," played a crucial role in restoring national morale. His assurance that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself" resonated deeply, helping to galvanize public support for his proposed interventions.

The First New Deal (1933-1934)

Banking and Financial Reforms

The immediate priority was stabilizing the financial system. Key actions included the Emergency Banking Act, which allowed the Federal Reserve to insure deposits, and the Glass-Steagall Act, establishing the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to guarantee bank accounts and separating commercial and investment banking.

Public Works and Employment

To combat unemployment, numerous public works programs were initiated. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) employed young men in conservation projects, while the Public Works Administration (PWA) funded large-scale infrastructure projects like dams, bridges, and public buildings. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) later became a major employer.

Agricultural Support

The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) aimed to raise farm prices by reducing production through subsidies. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was established to modernize the impoverished Tennessee Valley region through flood control, electricity generation, and economic development.

Regulatory Measures

The Securities Act of 1933 mandated disclosure for securities trading, and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was created to regulate stock market practices, aiming to prevent future crashes and corporate abuses.

The Second New Deal (1935-1936)

Social Security and Welfare

A landmark achievement was the Social Security Act of 1935, establishing a permanent system of retirement pensions, unemployment insurance, and welfare benefits for the disabled and dependent children. This laid the foundation for the modern American welfare state.

Labor Rights

The National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) of 1935 guaranteed workers the right to organize trade unions and engage in collective bargaining, significantly strengthening the labor movement and its political influence.

Economic Stimulus and Reform

Further initiatives included the Works Progress Administration (WPA) for job creation, the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) to bring power to rural areas, and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which established a national minimum wage, maximum work hours, and prohibited oppressive child labor.

Tax Policy

The Revenue Act of 1935, often called the "Wealth Tax Act," increased taxes on higher incomes and estates, reflecting a progressive redistributionist agenda, though its primary goal was political rather than fiscal.

Broader Reforms and Policies

Trade Liberalization

The Reciprocal Tariff Act of 1934, championed by Secretary of State Cordell Hull, empowered the president to negotiate bilateral trade agreements. This policy is credited with liberalizing international trade and fostering global economic recovery.

Housing Initiatives

New Deal programs like the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) aimed to stabilize the housing market, facilitate homeownership, and standardize construction. However, these initiatives also contributed to discriminatory practices like redlining.

Puerto Rico Reconstruction

Separate programs under the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration addressed the island's economic challenges through land reform, agricultural diversification, and support for local industries, aiming to alleviate poverty and foster development.

Impact and Legacy

Political Realignment

The New Deal fundamentally reshaped American politics, forging the "New Deal Coalition" which united labor unions, urban populations, minority groups, and Southern Democrats. This coalition dominated presidential politics for decades, solidifying the Democratic Party's progressive agenda.

Judicial Shift

When the Supreme Court initially struck down key New Deal legislation, Roosevelt proposed a "court-packing" plan. Although it failed, subsequent Court appointments shifted its ideological balance, leading to greater acceptance of federal economic regulation.

World War II and Full Employment

While the New Deal significantly alleviated suffering, full employment was ultimately achieved through massive government spending during World War II. The war effort cemented the role of federal intervention in managing the economy and provided a powerful stimulus that ended the Depression.

Economic Equality

The wartime economy, characterized by full employment and wage controls, led to a significant reduction in income inequality, a phenomenon known as the "Great Compression." Average living standards rose, and the gap between the rich and the poor narrowed considerably.

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References

March 4 was a Saturday and banks were not open on weekends. On Monday Roosevelt officially closed all banks. Arthur Schlesinger Jr. The Coming of the New Deal (1959), p. 3; Brands, Traitor to his class (2008) p. 288.

Jonathan Alter, The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope, esp. ch. 31. (2007); Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (1977) series K220, N301.

Herbert Stein, Presidential economics: The making of economic policy from Roosevelt to Reagan and beyond (1984)

Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz, Monetary History of the United States, 1867â1960 (1963) pp. 340â343

Ben Bernanke, "Nonmonetary effects of the financial crisis in the propagation of the Great Depression", (1983) American Economic Review. Am 73#3 257â76.

Jason Scott Smith, Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933â1956 (2005).

Handbook of Labor Statistics 1941 Edition Volume I All Topics Except Wages, Bulletin No. 694 (in 2 volumes), p. 257.

Encyclopedia of Alabama entry on John Hollis Bankhead II

Congressional Record PROCEEDINGS AND DEBATES OF THE 77H CONGRESS SECOND SESSION Appendix Volume 88-PART 10, JULY 27, 1942, TO DECEMBER 16. 1942, (PAGES A2955 TO A4454), A3621

Michael W. Straus, and Talbot Wegg, Housing comes of age (1938) online pp.128â130, 149.

Alley Life in Washington Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850-1970 By James Borchert, 1982, p. 52

Handbook of Labor Statistics 1941 Edition Volume I All Topics Except Wages, Bulletin No. 694 (in 2 volumes), p. 274

Sweet Tyranny Migrant Labor, Industrial Agriculture, and Imperial Politics By Kathleen Mapes, 2009, p. 223

Monthly Labor Review, Volume 53, Issue 1, 1941, p. 165

Monthly Labor Review 1939, pp. 561â563

Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935

Federal Power Act of 1935

Natural Gas Act of 1938

Lorraine Brown, "Federal Theatre: Melodrama, Social Protest, and Genius", U.S. Library of Congress Quarterly Journal, 1979, Vol. 36 Issue 1, pp. 18â37

Hemming, Heidi, and Julie Hemming Savage, Women Making America, Clotho Press, 2009, pp. 243â244.

Sue Bridwell Beckham, Depression Post Office Murals and Southern Culture: A Gentle Reconstruction (1989)

Kennedy (1999), pp. 275â276.

Kennedy (1999), p. 280.

Benjamin Graham. Security Analysis: The Classic 1940 Edition. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002. pp. 386â387

D. Bradford Hunt, "Was the 1937 US Housing Act a pyrrhic victory?" Journal of Planning History 4.3 (2005): 195-221.

Elliot A. Rosen. The Republican Party in the Age of Roosevelt: Sources of Anti-Government Conservatism in the United States (2014).

Official Proceedings of the Annual Convention Volumes 64â67, Indiana State Federation of Labor, 1949, p. 216

David M. Kennedy. Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. 1999.

THE SIGNALMAN'S JOURNAL, JULY 1950, P.211

Richard Jensen, "The cities reelect Roosevelt: Ethnicity, religion, and class in 1940." Ethnicity. An Interdisciplinary Journal of the Study of Ethnic Relations 8.2 (1981): 189-195.

GNP was $99.7 billion in 1940 and $210.1 billion in 1944. Historical Statistics (1976) series F1.

Nathan Sinai, and Odin Waldemar Anderson. "EMIC (Emergency Maternity and Infant Care). A Study of Administrative Experience." Bureau of Public Health Economics. Research Series 3 (1948).

Michael J. Bennett, When Dreams Came True: The GI Bill and the Making of Modern America (1999)

Merl E. Reed, Seedtime for the Modern Civil Rights Movement: The President's Committee on Fair Employment Practice, 1941â1946 (1991)

as summarized by Clemens, Prosperity, Depression and the New Deal: The USA 1890â1954 p. 219

Philip S. Foner. Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 1619â1981 (New York: International Publishers, 1981), p. 200.

Bruce Bartlett. Wrong on Race: The Democratic Party's Buried Past. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), Kindle location 2459.

Harold Ickes, The secret diary of Harold L. Ickes Vol. 2: The inside struggle, 1936â1939 (1954) p. 115

Children in the family were allowed to hold CCC or NYA jobsâindeed, CCC jobs were normally given to young men whose fathers were on relief. Young women were eligible for NYA jobs which began in 1935.

Martha Swain, '"The Forgotten Woman': Ellen S. Woodward and Women's Relief in the New Deal" Prologue, (1983) 15#4 pp. 201â213.

Sara B. Marcketti, "The Sewing-Room Projects of the Works Progress Administration". Textile History 41.1 (2010): 28â49.

Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (1975) p. 340 series H1 and H2

DeLong, J. Bradford, Lawrence H. Summers, N. Gregory Mankiw, and Christina D. Romer. "How does macroeconomic policy affect output?" Brookings Papers on Economic Activity (1988): 467.

Kiran Klaus Patel, Soldiers of Labor: Labor Service in Nazi Germany and New Deal America, 1933â1945 Cambridge University Press 2005, pp. 3â5

For a list of relevant works, see the list of suggested readings appearing toward the bottom of the article.

William E. Leuchtenburg. The FDR Years: On Roosevelt and his Legacy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), p. 243.

John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, David Brody. The New Deal: The National Level (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975) 310.

John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, David Brody. The New Deal: The National Level (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975) 312.

John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, David Brody. The New Deal: The National Level (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975) 314.

Cara A. Finnegan. Picturing Poverty: Print Culture and FSA Photographs (Smithsonian Books, 2003) pp. 43â44

Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (OECD 2003); Japan is close, see p. 174

A full list of references for this article are available at the New Deal Wikipedia page

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This content has been generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for educational and informational purposes only. It is based on publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not reflect the most current information or nuances of the topic.

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The New Deal: America's Response to Crisis

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview ℹ️

🇺🇸 Defining the New Deal

🎯 Core Objectives: The Three R's

💡 Economic Philosophy

Origins: The Great Depression 📉

💥 Economic Collapse

🏦 Financial Instability

❓ Societal Impact

Campaign Promise 📢

🗣️ "A New Deal for the American People"

🤝 Public Confidence

The First New Deal (1933-1934) 🏦

🏦 Banking and Financial Reforms

🏗️ Public Works and Employment

🌾 Agricultural Support

📜 Regulatory Measures

The Second New Deal (1935-1936) 🤝

🛡️ Social Security and Welfare

⚖️ Labor Rights

💰 Economic Stimulus and Reform

📈 Tax Policy

Broader Reforms and Policies 📜

🌍 Trade Liberalization

🏠 Housing Initiatives

🇵🇷 Puerto Rico Reconstruction

Impact and Legacy 📈

🏛️ Political Realignment

⚖️ Judicial Shift

⚔️ World War II and Full Employment

📊 Economic Equality

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

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Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

Defining the New Deal

Core Objectives: The Three R's

Economic Philosophy

Origins: The Great Depression

Economic Collapse

Financial Instability

Societal Impact

Campaign Promise

"A New Deal for the American People"

Public Confidence

The First New Deal (1933-1934)

Banking and Financial Reforms

Public Works and Employment

Agricultural Support

Regulatory Measures

The Second New Deal (1935-1936)

Social Security and Welfare

Labor Rights

Economic Stimulus and Reform

Tax Policy

Broader Reforms and Policies

Trade Liberalization

Housing Initiatives

Puerto Rico Reconstruction

Impact and Legacy

Political Realignment

Judicial Shift

World War II and Full Employment

Economic Equality

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice