What is Peshawar's status within Pakistan, and what is its approximate population?

Peshawar serves as the capital and largest city of the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It is Pakistan's eighth-most populous city, with a population exceeding 1.9 million people.

Where is Peshawar geographically situated, and what historical significance does its location hold?

Peshawar is located in the northwestern part of Pakistan, within the Valley of Peshawar, which lies east of the Khyber Pass. This strategic location has historically made it a crucial gateway for trade and cultural exchange between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

How old is Peshawar, and what is its historical standing among cities in South Asia?

Peshawar's recorded history dates back to at least the sixth century BC, establishing it as one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in South Asia. Its long history signifies its enduring importance as a cultural and political center over millennia.

Which ancient empire had Peshawar as its capital, and under which ruler?

Peshawar, then known as Purushapura, served as the capital of the Kushan Empire during the rule of Kanishka the Great in the second century CE. This period marked a significant era of prosperity and cultural development for the city.

What major empires and dynasties ruled Peshawar after the Ghaznavid conquest in 1001 CE?

Following the Ghaznavid conquest, Peshawar was ruled by various Muslim empires, including the Ghaznavids themselves, and later served as an important trading center within the Mughal Empire. It also functioned as the winter capital of the Durrani Empire before its capture by the Sikh Empire in 1823.

How did Peshawar transition from being part of the Durrani Empire to being under British rule?

Peshawar served as the winter capital of the Durrani Empire until it was captured by the Sikh Empire in 1823. Subsequently, in 1849, the city was taken by the British East India Company and became part of British India, known as British Raj.

When did Peshawar become the capital of the North-West Frontier Province, and what led to this administrative change?

In 1901, Peshawar was designated the capital of the newly created North-West Frontier Province. This province was formed from the northwestern districts of Punjab Province, establishing Peshawar as the administrative center for this strategically important region.

What was the primary language spoken in Peshawar during the colonial period and early independence, and how has the linguistic landscape changed?

Historically, Hindko was the lingua franca of Peshawar. However, due to rapid urbanization and the influx of Afghan refugees following the Soviet-Afghan War, Pashto has become the dominant language in the city. This linguistic shift reflects significant demographic changes over recent decades.

What is the possible origin of the name "Peshawar," and what are the different theories behind it?

The modern name "Peshawar" is possibly derived from the Sanskrit word "Purushapura," meaning "City of Men" or "City of Purusha." Other theories suggest it might be named after a Hindu raja named Purush, or from the Persian "Pesh Awardan," meaning "frontier town" or "place of first arrival" due to its location after the Khyber Pass.

What ancient civilizations and empires significantly influenced Peshawar's early history?

Peshawar, known as Purushapura in antiquity, was influenced by the Kushan Empire, which made it its winter capital. It also experienced periods under the Seleucid Empire, the Mauryan Empire, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and was later impacted by the Sasanid Empire and the White Huns.

How did Alexander the Great's campaign affect the Peshawar region?

In the winter of 327-326 BCE, Alexander the Great subdued the Valley of Peshawar during his invasion of the Indus Valley. Following his conquest, the region came under the suzerainty of Seleucus I Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid Empire.

What role did Peshawar play during the Kushan Empire?

Peshawar, then called Purushapura, served as the winter capital of the Kushan Empire. Emperor Kanishka the Great established the Kanishka Mahavihara monastery and the magnificent Kanishka stupa, which housed Buddhist relics, highlighting the city's importance as a center of Buddhism and governance.

What impact did the Sasanid Empire and the White Huns have on Peshawar?

The Sasanid Empire, under Shapur I around 260 CE, attacked Peshawar, severely damaging Buddhist monuments and monasteries. Later, the White Huns devastated the city in the 460s CE, also destroying numerous Buddhist sites in the Gandhara region.

How did Islam become established in Peshawar, and what were the key events during the Ghaznavid era?

Islam is believed to have been introduced to Peshawar's inhabitants in the later seventh century. The Ghaznavid Empire, led by Mahmud Ghazni, decisively defeated the Hindu Shahis in the Battle of Peshawar in 1001 CE, establishing Ghaznavid rule and making Peshawar an important stop on trade routes.

What significant events occurred in Peshawar during the Mughal Empire's rule?

During the Mughal era, Peshawar was an important trade center on the Grand Trunk Road. Emperor Babur rebuilt the city's fort, and Emperor Akbar officially renamed it Peshawar. The city also faced challenges from revolts, such as the Roshani Revolt, and saw the construction of significant structures like the Mohabbat Khan Mosque.

How did the Durrani and Sikh Empires influence Peshawar's history?

Peshawar became part of the Durrani Empire in 1747 and served as its winter capital. It was later captured by the Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh in 1818 and formally annexed in 1834, leading to economic decline and the appointment of Paolo Avitabile as administrator, known for his harsh rule.

What was the impact of British rule on Peshawar, particularly concerning its administration and infrastructure?

Following the Anglo-Sikh Wars, the British East India Company took control of Peshawar in 1849. They established the Peshawar Cantonment as their frontier headquarters, improved infrastructure by linking the city via railway, and separated the region from Punjab to create the North-West Frontier Province in 1901, with Peshawar as its capital.

What major events of civil unrest or conflict occurred in Peshawar during the British Raj?

Peshawar experienced communal riots in the spring of 1910 between Hindu and Muslim communities during religious festivals. Additionally, in April 1930, British Indian Army troops opened fire on demonstrators led by Ghaffar Khan in Qissa Khwani Bazaar, resulting in a massacre.

How did Peshawar's role and demographics change after the Partition of India in 1947?

After the Partition of British India in 1947, Peshawar became part of Pakistan. The departure of many Hindko-speaking Hindus and Sikhs weakened the historical presence of the Hindko language, while the city emerged as a cultural center in the country's northwest.

What was Peshawar's connection to the Cold War and the Soviet-Afghan War?

In the 1960s, Peshawar served as a base for a CIA operation to spy on the Soviet Union. During the Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s, it became a political center for CIA and ISI-backed Mujahideen groups and a primary destination for Afghan refugees, significantly impacting the city's infrastructure and demographics.

What challenges has Peshawar faced in the modern era due to terrorism?

Peshawar has been severely affected by violence from groups like the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan. Notable incidents include attacks on shrines, the 2013 suicide bombing of All Saints Church, and the 2014 Peshawar school massacre, which resulted in the deaths of many children.

Describe the general topography of Peshawar and its surrounding region.

Peshawar is situated in the broad Valley of Peshawar, which is bordered by mountain ranges on three sides. The city itself lies on the relatively level Gandhara Plains at the eastern opening of the valley, serving as a gateway to the Khyber Pass.

What is the climate of Peshawar like, according to the Köppen classification?

Peshawar experiences a hot semi-arid climate, classified as Köppen BSh. This climate is characterized by very hot, prolonged summers and brief, mild to cool winters, with rainfall occurring in both seasons.

How does Peshawar's rainfall pattern differ from other parts of Pakistan, and what were some record rainfall events?

Unlike many other regions in Pakistan, Peshawar is not a monsoon region. Rainfall occurs in both winter and summer, with winter rainfall often being higher due to western disturbances. Record rainfall events include 236 mm in February 2007 and a significant 402 mm in July 2010.

What is the urban typology of Peshawar, and how does it compare to other ancient South Asian cities?

Peshawar's urban structure is similar to ancient South Asian cities like Lahore and Delhi, featuring an old walled city and a royal citadel. Historically, it was founded near a major river, reflecting a common pattern for ancient urban development in the region.

What architectural features are characteristic of Peshawar's old city, and what is the current state of its historic monuments?

The old city of Peshawar historically featured high walls, though only remnants remain today. Houses are often constructed of unbaked bricks with wooden elements for earthquake resistance, including carved wooden doors and balconies, with notable examples found in areas like Sethi Mohallah. Many historic monuments in the old city require restoration and protection due to damage from development.

What languages are spoken in Peshawar, and how has their prevalence changed over time?

Today, Pashto is the dominant language in Peshawar. Historically, Hindko was the lingua franca, particularly in the Old City, but its prevalence has decreased due to urbanization and the influx of Pashto-speaking populations, including Afghan refugees. Urdu is also widely understood as the national language.

What was the linguistic composition of Peshawar in 1951 compared to 2023?

In 1951, Pashto was spoken by 75.3% of Peshawar's population, followed by Punjabi (19.5%) and Urdu (3.91%). By 2023, Pashto's dominance increased to 87.8%, with Hindko at 5.57% and Urdu at 4.11% in the Peshawar Tehsil.

What is the religious makeup of Peshawar, and how did the Partition of India affect its religious communities?

Peshawar is predominantly Muslim (98.5% in 1998). Christians and the Ahmadiyya Community form significant minorities. The Partition of British India in 1947 led to the mass migration of many Hindus and Sikhs to India, significantly reducing their presence in the city.

How has the Sikh community in Peshawar evolved, particularly regarding their language and identity?

Although the Sikh population declined after Partition, it was later bolstered by refugees from conflict areas. Sikhs in Peshawar today often self-identify as Pashtuns and speak Pashto as their mother tongue, reflecting cultural assimilation within the region.

What was Peshawar's economic significance historically, and how has tourism played a role?

Peshawar's economy was historically vital due to its strategic location at the entrance of the Khyber Pass, facilitating trade between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. In the mid-20th century, the city also benefited from tourism as a key stop on the famous "Hippie trail."

What are the key industries located in Peshawar's industrial estates?

Peshawar's Industrial Estate on Jamrud Road hosts industries such as furniture, marble, and food processing. The Hayatabad Industrial Estate also contains numerous industrial units, although many are reportedly no longer in use.

What employment challenges has Peshawar faced, particularly concerning its formalized economy and refugee population?

Due to a large number of displaced persons, only about 12% of Peshawar's residents were employed in the formalized economy in 2012. A significant portion of the population, including Afghan refugees, worked in personal services or as daily wage earners, indicating a reliance on informal employment sectors.

How has political instability and security impacted Peshawar's economy?

Peshawar's economy has been negatively affected by political instability stemming from the War in Afghanistan since 1979, the resulting refugee influx, and Islamist violence. While Operation Zarb-e-Azb improved the security environment, poor infrastructure and utility shortages continue to pose economic constraints.

What are the main road networks connected to Peshawar?

Peshawar is connected to major cities like Islamabad and Lahore via the Grand Trunk Road and the M-1 Motorway. It also serves as a gateway to Central Asia via the Khyber Pass and is linked to western China through the Karakoram Highway. The Indus Highway provides access to southern Pakistan.

What is the significance of the M-1 Motorway in relation to Peshawar?

The M-1 Motorway is a crucial transportation link that connects Peshawar to Islamabad and Rawalpindi, covering a distance of 155 kilometers. It also provides access to other major cities within Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, such as Charsadda and Mardan, and forms part of the larger motorway network extending to Lahore.

How does Peshawar's railway system connect it to other parts of Pakistan?

Peshawar Cantonment railway station serves as the terminus for Pakistan's Main Line-1, a 1,687 km railway route that connects the city to the port city of Karachi. This line passes through Peshawar City railway station and is served by several passenger train services.

What role does Bacha Khan International Airport play in Peshawar's connectivity?

Bacha Khan International Airport serves Peshawar and is located in the Peshawar Cantonment. It facilitates travel throughout Pakistan and offers direct flights to international destinations such as Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, handling a significant number of passengers, primarily international travelers.

What improvements have been made to Peshawar's public transportation system?

Peshawar's public transportation system has been significantly modernized with the introduction of BRT Peshawar (Bus Rapid Transit) in August 2020. This system, featuring 30 stations and 244 buses, replaced the city's older, less adequate transportation network and is considered one of Pakistan's most advanced BRT systems.

How has Peshawar historically served as a political center?

Peshawar has historically been the political hub of its region and currently functions as the capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. It has been a significant center for various political parties, including the Awami National Party and the Pakistan Peoples Party, and has experienced shifts in political influence, including the rise of Islamist coalitions.

What is the general social and political climate of Peshawar?

Despite being a center for leftist politics in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar is generally considered socially conservative throughout Pakistan. Sunni Muslims in the city tend to be more conservative, while the Shia population is perceived as more socially liberal.

What cultural restrictions were imposed in Peshawar in the early 2000s, and what was their impact?

Following the election of an Islamist coalition government in 2002, restrictions were placed on public musical performances and the playing of music in public spaces. These measures led to the emergence of a thriving underground music scene in Peshawar.

What is the significance of the Peshawar Museum, particularly its collection?

The Peshawar Museum, founded in 1907 in memory of Queen Victoria, houses a collection of nearly 14,000 items. It is particularly renowned for its extensive collection of Greco-Buddhist art and features pieces from the Gandharan, Kushan, Parthian, and Indo-Scythian periods.

What are some of the prominent educational institutions in Peshawar?

Peshawar hosts numerous educational institutions, including the University of Peshawar (established 1950), Edwardes College (founded 1900), and Islamia College Peshawar (established 1913). The city also has multiple universities for various disciplines and several medical colleges.

What are some of the notable landmarks in Peshawar, categorized by their historical or cultural significance?

Peshawar boasts numerous landmarks, including the Bala Hisar Fort, the colonial-era Cunningham clock tower, the Buddhist site of Gorkhatri, Hindu sites like Panch Tirath, Sikh Gurdwaras, and significant mosques such as the Mohabbat Khan Mosque. Parks like Wazir Bagh and Shahi Bagh are also notable features of the city's landscape.

Which sports are most popular in Peshawar, and what are the key sporting venues?

Cricket is the most popular sport in Peshawar, with Arbab Niaz Stadium and Hayatabad Cricket Stadium serving as major venues. Qayyum Stadium is a multi-sports facility that hosts various indoor and outdoor sports, including football, hockey, and squash, which are also popular in the region.

What professional sports teams represent Peshawar?

Peshawar is represented by several professional sports teams, including Peshawar Zalmi and Peshawar Panthers in cricket, Peshawar Haiders in Kabaddi, and Tribe F.C. Peshawar in football. These teams compete in various national leagues and tournaments.

What are Peshawar's twin towns or sister cities?

Peshawar has established twin city relationships with Makassar in Indonesia and Urumqi in China. These partnerships foster cultural and economic exchange between the cities.

What is the significance of the Qissa Khwani Bazaar in Peshawar's history and culture?

The Qissa Khwani Bazaar, meaning "Storytellers' Bazaar," is a historic market in Peshawar's old city. It has been a significant center for trade, cultural exchange, and storytelling for centuries, and was also the site of a tragic massacre of demonstrators in 1930.

How did the influx of Afghan refugees impact Peshawar's demographics and economy?

The large influx of Afghan refugees into Peshawar, particularly during the Soviet-Afghan War, significantly altered the city's demographics and strained its infrastructure. While refugees contributed to the city's economy through businesses and cultural activities, their presence also presented challenges.

What is the historical context of the "Peshoris" in Peshawar?

The Peshoris, or Peshoris, are the Hindko-speaking urban community that has inhabited Peshawar since ancient times. They were historically dominant in trade, business, and education, forming the majority until the 1960s, but are now a minority concentrated in the older parts of the city.

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Peshawar: An Introduction

Strategic Location

Peshawar, the capital and largest city of Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, holds a pivotal position. Situated in the vast Valley of Peshawar, east of the historic Khyber Pass, it serves as a crucial nexus connecting the Pakistani hinterland with Central Asia.

Ancient Roots

With a recorded history dating back to at least the 6th century BCE, Peshawar ranks among South Asia's oldest continuously inhabited urban centers. It flourished as a key city in the ancient Gandhara region and served as the capital of the Kushan Empire.

Demographic Significance

As Pakistan's eighth-most populous city, Peshawar is home to over 1.9 million inhabitants. Predominantly Pashtun, the city also retains a significant presence of its original urban population, the Peshoris, particularly in the historic Walled City.

Etymology: The Name's Origin

Sanskrit Origins

The modern name "Peshawar" likely derives from the Sanskrit name "Purushapura," meaning "City of Men" or "City of Purusha." This ancient appellation suggests a foundation possibly linked to a ruler named Purush, where "pur" signifies "city" in Sanskrit.

Persian Influence

Another theory posits a Persian origin, linking the name to "Pesh Awardan," translating to "place of first arrival" or "frontier city," reflecting Peshawar's status as the initial urban settlement encountered after traversing the Khyber Pass. Mughal Emperor Akbar is credited with formally adopting the name Peshawar.

City of Flowers?

An intriguing possibility suggests the name might stem from the Sanskrit "Poshapura," meaning "City of Flowers," an interpretation found in ancient Kharosthi inscriptions potentially referring to Peshawar.

A Chronicle of Empires

Ancient Foundations

Established as Purushapura around the 1st century CE, Peshawar was a vital center of the Gandhara civilization. It served as the winter capital of the Kushan Empire under Kanishka the Great, boasting a population estimated at 120,000, making it a major global city of its time. The region experienced rule by various empires, including the Mauryans, Greco-Bactrians, Indo-Parthians, and Kushans, before falling under Sasanid influence.

Medieval Transitions

Following periods of rule by the Hindu Shahis and subsequent invasions, Peshawar came under the control of the Ghaznavids in 1001 CE. It later endured periods of destruction, notably by the Mongols, and served as a significant center during the Delhi Sultanate and the early Pashtun settlements.

Mughal, Durrani, and Sikh Eras

Peshawar thrived as a key trading hub within the Mughal Empire. It later became the winter capital of the Durrani Empire. The city changed hands multiple times between the Durranis and the Marathas/Sikhs before being formally annexed by the Sikh Empire in 1834.

British Colonial Period

The British East India Company gained control in 1849, establishing Peshawar as a frontier headquarters. Despite the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 passing without major incident locally, the British era saw significant infrastructure development, including railways and educational institutions like Edwardes College and Islamia College. Peshawar became the capital of the newly formed North-West Frontier Province in 1901.

Geographical Context

Valley Landscape

Peshawar is situated within the expansive Valley of Peshawar, a region characterized by plains surrounded by mountain ranges. The city itself rests on the relatively level Gandhara Plains, strategically positioned at the eastern entrance of the famed Khyber Pass.

Location Coordinates

The city's geographical coordinates are approximately 34°00′52″N 71°34′03″E. Its elevation averages 331 meters (1,086 feet) above sea level.

Climate Profile

Semi-Arid Conditions

Peshawar experiences a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh). The city endures prolonged, very hot summers and brief, mild winters. Unlike many Pakistani regions, it is not directly influenced by the monsoon, receiving rainfall in both winter (February-April) and summer.

The following table details average and record temperatures, precipitation, and sunshine hours based on historical data:

Climate data for Peshawar (1991-2020)
Climate Data for Peshawar (1991-2020)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	27.0 (80.6)	30.0 (86.0)	37.5 (99.5)	42.4 (108.3)	45.2 (113.4)	48.0 (118.4)	46.6 (115.9)	46.0 (114.8)	42.0 (107.6)	38.5 (101.3)	35.0 (95.0)	29.0 (84.2)	48.0 (118.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	18.1 (64.6)	20.1 (68.2)	24.7 (76.5)	30.6 (87.1)	36.5 (97.7)	39.6 (103.3)	37.4 (99.3)	35.9 (96.6)	34.8 (94.6)	31.0 (87.8)	25.2 (77.4)	20.6 (69.1)	29.5 (85.2)
Daily mean °C (°F)	11.3 (52.3)	13.8 (56.8)	18.2 (64.8)	23.9 (75.0)	29.4 (84.9)	32.7 (90.9)	32.1 (89.8)	30.9 (87.6)	29.0 (84.2)	24.1 (75.4)	17.8 (64.0)	13.2 (55.8)	23.0 (73.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	4.6 (40.3)	7.6 (45.7)	12.2 (54.0)	17.2 (63.0)	22.3 (72.1)	25.8 (78.4)	26.8 (80.2)	26.0 (78.8)	23.2 (73.8)	17.1 (62.8)	10.4 (50.7)	5.6 (42.1)	16.6 (61.8)
Record low °C (°F)	−3.9 (25.0)	−1.0 (30.2)	1.7 (35.1)	6.7 (44.1)	11.7 (53.1)	13.3 (55.9)	18.0 (64.4)	19.4 (66.9)	12.0 (53.6)	8.3 (46.9)	1.1 (34.0)	−1.3 (29.7)	−3.9 (25.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	39.8 (1.57)	69.9 (2.75)	78.2 (3.08)	68.1 (2.68)	26.7 (1.05)	25.4 (1.00)	69.0 (2.72)	68.5 (2.70)	34.8 (1.37)	26.7 (1.05)	16.9 (0.67)	17.3 (0.68)	541.3 (21.32)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm)	3.9	5.7	7.6	5.8	4.6	2.1	4.4	5.0	3.0	2.5	2.1	2.1	48.8
Mean monthly sunshine hours	195.5	189.5	194.5	231.3	297.1	299.5	273.8	263.2	257.3	266.1	234.8	184.4	2,887
Source: NOAA (sun, 1961-1990), PMD

Peshawar faces significant air quality challenges, being identified as one of the world's most polluted cities in recent reports. Prevailing winds vary seasonally, influencing air quality conditions.

Urban Fabric

Historic Core

Peshawar's urban structure echoes that of other ancient South Asian cities, featuring a historic Walled City with remnants of its defensive walls and numerous gates. Traditional architecture, characterized by houses and havelis made of unbaked bricks with wooden elements for earthquake resistance, is still visible, particularly in areas like Sethi Mohallah.

Landmarks and Bazaars

Key historical sites within the old city include the Mohabbat Khan Mosque, Kotla Mohsin Khan, Chowk Yadgar, and the vibrant Qissa Khwani Bazaar. The British colonial era introduced structures like the Cunningham Clock Tower and the Victoria Hall (now the Peshawar Museum), reflecting Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture.

Modern Development

The Peshawar Cantonment, established in 1868, represents a significant British-era development west of the old city. Modern infrastructure includes railway connectivity and educational institutions, though rapid urban growth necessitates preservation efforts for the historic core.

Population Dynamics

Population Trends

Peshawar's population has grown substantially over the centuries. From approximately 80,000 in 1881, it reached over 1.9 million by the 2023 census, making it the largest city in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and eighth largest in Pakistan. This growth reflects significant urbanization and migration patterns.

Historical Population
Year	Pop.	±%
1881	79,982	—
1901	95,147	+13.0%
1951	151,776	−12.5%
1981	555,000	+103.3%
2023	1,905,975	−3.0%

Afghan Refugee Influence

Peshawar has been a significant destination for Afghan refugees since the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. This influx has profoundly impacted the city's demographics, infrastructure, and cultural landscape, contributing to the prevalence of the Pashto language.

Community Composition

While Pashtuns form the majority, the city's historical urban population, the Hindko-speaking Peshoris, remain influential, particularly in the old city's trade and business sectors. The partition of India in 1947 led to a significant migration of Hindu and Sikh communities.

Linguistic Landscape

Dominant Tongues

Pashto is the predominant language spoken in Peshawar today. Historically, Hindko served as the city's lingua franca and remains prevalent in the Old City. Urdu, the national language, is widely understood, and English is utilized in educational and official contexts.

Languages by number of speakers (urban) in Peshawar Tehsil, 2023

Pashto (87.8%)
Hindko (5.57%)
Urdu (4.11%)
Punjabi (1.12%)
Others (1.40%)

Historical Linguistic Shift

While Hindko was historically dominant, Pashto gained prominence due to urbanization and the significant influx of Afghan refugees from the 1960s onwards. This demographic shift has reshaped Peshawar into a predominantly Pashtun-speaking city.

Languages by number of speakers in Peshawar City, 1951

Pashto (75.3%)
Punjabi (19.5%)
Urdu (3.91%)
Persian (0.55%)
Others (0.75%)

Religious Demographics

Predominantly Muslim

Islam is the dominant religion, with Muslims constituting approximately 98.5% of the population as per the 1998 census. Christian and Ahmadiyya communities represent the next largest religious groups.

Historical Minorities

Hindu and Sikh communities were historically present but significantly reduced following the 1947 Partition of India. However, Peshawar remains a significant center for the Sikh community in Pakistan, bolstered by refugees from tribal areas.

Religious groups in Peshawar City (1868–2023)
Religious group	1881		1901		1951		2017		2023
Religious group	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%
Islam	57,378	71.74%	68,352	71.84%	114,568	75.48%	1,942,636	98.62%	1,872,113	98.56%
Hinduism	18,105	22.64%	18,552	19.50%	31,630	20.76%	1,720	0.09%	1,726	0.09%
Sikhism	1,465	1.83%	5,144	5.41%	6,152	4.05%	14,245	7.08%	1,441	0.08%
Christianity	N/A	N/A	3,629	3.82%	3,414	2.25%	22,032	1.12%	23,638	1.24%
Judaism	N/A	N/A	0	0%	0	0%	11	0.01%	N/A	N/A
Others	112	0.14%	3,031	3.19%	0	0%	N/A	N/A	166	0.01%

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References

A. D. H. Bivar, "The History of Eastern Iran", in Ehsan Yarshater (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol.3 (1), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, London, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p.197.

"The Kingdom of Afghanistan â A Historical Sketch" by G.P.Tate (1911), Reproduced by 'Indus Publications' (1973) Page 12 (Foot Note)

Charles Allen, Soldier Sahibs, p.276

Schofield, Victoria, "Afghan Frontier: Feuding and Fighting in Central Asia", London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks (2003), page 47

A full list of references for this article are available at the Peshawar Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

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Peshawar: A Living Tapestry of History

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Peshawar: An Introduction ℹ️

📍 Strategic Location

🏛️ Ancient Roots

👥 Demographic Significance

Etymology: The Name's Origin 📜

🗣️ Sanskrit Origins

📜 Persian Influence

🌸 City of Flowers?

A Chronicle of Empires ⏳

⚔️ Ancient Foundations

🕌 Medieval Transitions

👑 Mughal, Durrani, and Sikh Eras

🇬🇧 British Colonial Period

Geographical Context 🌍

🏞️ Valley Landscape

🗺️ Location Coordinates

Climate Profile ☀️

🌡️ Semi-Arid Conditions

Urban Fabric 🏛️

🏘️ Historic Core

🕌 Landmarks and Bazaars

🌳 Modern Development

Population Dynamics 👥

📈 Population Trends

🌍 Afghan Refugee Influence

🧑‍🤝‍🧑 Community Composition

Linguistic Landscape 🗣️

💬 Dominant Tongues

📜 Historical Linguistic Shift

Religious Demographics 🙏

☪️ Predominantly Muslim

🕉️ Historical Minorities

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

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Explore More Topics

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References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Peshawar: An Introduction

Strategic Location

Ancient Roots

Demographic Significance

Etymology: The Name's Origin

Sanskrit Origins

Persian Influence

City of Flowers?

A Chronicle of Empires

Ancient Foundations

Medieval Transitions

Mughal, Durrani, and Sikh Eras

British Colonial Period

Geographical Context

Valley Landscape

Location Coordinates

Climate Profile

Semi-Arid Conditions

Urban Fabric

Historic Core

Landmarks and Bazaars

Modern Development

Population Dynamics

Population Trends

Afghan Refugee Influence

Community Composition

Linguistic Landscape

Dominant Tongues

Historical Linguistic Shift

Religious Demographics

Predominantly Muslim

Historical Minorities

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice