Unbroken Spirit: The Polish Armed Forces in the West
A scholarly examination of the indomitable spirit and strategic contributions of Polish military formations fighting alongside the Western Allies during World War II.
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Overview
A Force in Exile
The Polish Armed Forces in the West (Polskie Siลy Zbrojne na Zachodzie) comprised Polish military formations that fought alongside the Western Allies against Nazi Germany and its Axis partners during World War II. These forces maintained their allegiance to the Polish government-in-exile, which was established after the defeat and occupation of Poland in September 1939 by Germany and the Soviet Union.
Formation and Reconstitution
Initially, these forces were organized in France and its Middle Eastern territories. Following the swift fall of France in June 1940, the formations were reconstituted and expanded in the United Kingdom. This strategic relocation allowed Polish military personnel to continue their fight, demonstrating an unwavering commitment to the Allied cause despite the occupation of their homeland.
Pivotal Contributions
The Polish Armed Forces in the West made substantial contributions across various theaters of war. They distinguished themselves as "shock troops" in Allied service, notably during the Italian Campaign at the Battle of Monte Cassino, where the Polish flag was famously raised on May 18, 1944. Other significant engagements included the Battles of Bologna and Ancona in Italy, and the fierce fighting at Hill 262 in France in 1944.
History
Early Mobilization in France
After Poland's defeat in late 1939, the Polish government-in-exile rapidly established a new fighting force in France, initially comprising approximately 80,000 personnel. These units operated under the command of the French Army. Notable early engagements included the Polish Independent Highland Brigade's participation in the Battles of Narvik in Norway. Concurrently, a Polish Independent Carpathian Brigade was formed in the French Mandate of Syria, drawing many Polish troops who had escaped their occupied homeland.
Rebirth in the United Kingdom
With the capitulation of France in June 1940, General Wลadysลaw Sikorski, the Polish commander-in-chief and prime minister, orchestrated the evacuation of over 20,000 Polish troops to the United Kingdom. The Polish Navy had already regrouped there in mid-1939, and by 1940, Polish airmen were making critical contributions to the Battle of Britain. Ground units, forming the Polish I Corps, took on defensive responsibilities in Scotland, reinforcing coastal defenses.
Growth and Global Reach
A significant expansion occurred in 1941 following an agreement between the Polish government-in-exile and Joseph Stalin, leading to the release of Polish soldiers and civilians from Soviet imprisonment. This enabled the formation of a 75,000-strong army in the Soviet Union under General Wลadysลaw Anders, known as "Anders' Army," which was subsequently moved to the Middle East and formed the Polish II Corps. By March 1944, the Polish Armed Forces in the West numbered 165,000, growing to 228,000 by July 1945, including many released prisoners-of-war and labor camp inmates.
Major Campaigns
These forces participated in nearly all major Allied operations against Nazi Germany in the Mediterranean, Middle East, and European theaters. Their engagements included the North African Campaign, the Italian Campaign (featuring the iconic Battle of Monte Cassino), and the Western European Campaign, from the Dieppe Raid and D-Day through the Battle of Normandy and later operations such as Operation Market Garden.
Army
Formations in France (1939-1940)
The Polish Army in France, organized shortly after the 1939 invasion, comprised approximately 85,000 men. Key formations included four infantry divisions (1st Grenadier, 2nd Infantry Fusiliers, 3rd, and 4th), a motorized brigade (10th Brigade of Armored Cavalry), and the Polish Independent Highland Brigade, which saw action in the Battles of Narvik. The Polish Independent Carpathian Brigade was also established in French-mandated Syria, with its troops later fighting in the North African Campaign.
Reorganization in the UK
Following the Fall of France, during which approximately 6,000 Polish soldiers perished, General Sikorski managed to evacuate between 20,000 and 35,000 personnel to the United Kingdom. These soldiers formed the Polish I Corps, which included the Polish 1st Armoured Division (later attached to the First Canadian Army) and the Polish Independent Parachute Brigade. Other units, such as the 4th Infantry Division and the 16th Independent Armoured Brigade, were also part of this corps. Notably, a No. 6 (Polish) Troop was integrated into No.10 (Inter-Allied) Commando.
Anders' Army and II Corps
In 1941, an agreement between the Polish government-in-exile and Joseph Stalin led to the release of Polish citizens from Soviet imprisonment. From these individuals, a 75,000-strong army, known as Anders' Army, was formed in the Soviet Union. This force was subsequently transported across the Caspian Sea to the Middle East (Iran) in 1942, where it became the foundation for the Polish II Corps. This corps included the Polish 3rd Carpathian Infantry Division, Polish 5th Kresowa Infantry Division, and the Polish 2nd Armoured Brigade.
Recruitment Diversity
Beyond those evacuated from France and released from Soviet captivity, the Polish army in exile actively recruited from the Polish diaspora in North and Latin America. After 1942, recruitment efforts extended to Wehrmacht prisoners of war captured by Allied forces, as well as Polish soldiers serving in the French Foreign Legion. Some personnel also escaped internment in Switzerland to join the fight in Great Britain.
Airforce
French Campaign Contributions
The Polish Air Force participated in the Battle of France with one fighter squadron, GC 1/145, and several smaller units attached to French squadrons. Approximately 130 Polish pilots were involved, achieving 55 victories while sustaining 15 losses. This initial engagement showcased their combat readiness and determination.
Battle of Britain Heroes
Following an agreement in June 1940, the Polish Air Force was formally established in the United Kingdom. Polish pilots played a crucial role in the Battle of Britain, with 89 pilots serving in four dedicated Polish squadrons (300 and 301 Bomber Squadrons; 302 "City of Poznan" and 303 "Koลciuszko" Fighter Squadrons), alongside over 50 Poles in British squadrons. Their extensive pre-war training and combat experience from the 1939 September Campaign and the Battle of France made them exceptionally effective. The No. 303 "Koลciuszko" Squadron achieved the highest number of kills (126) of all fighter squadrons in the Battle of Britain, accounting for 12% of total Allied victories.
Global Operations and Losses
Beyond Britain, Polish Air Force units engaged in operations in Tunisia (the Polish Fighting Team, or "Skalski's Circus") and participated in bombing raids over Germany from 1940 to 1945. Polish bomber squadrons constituted a significant portion of RAF Bomber Command in late 1941 and early 1942, though they suffered heavy losses with limited opportunities for replenishment. Total Polish aircrew losses amounted to 1,803 killed, with 929 serving with Bomber Command. By the war's end, eight Polish fighter squadrons had claimed 621 Axis aircraft destroyed, and approximately 19,400 Poles served in the RAF.
Intel
The 'Second Department'
Following the fall of Poland in 1939, the Polish intelligence structure, known as the 'Second Department,' remained largely intact and continued to report to the Polish Government in Exile. This network collaborated extensively with other Allied intelligence services across Europe, establishing one of the largest intelligence operations within Nazi Germany itself.
Allied Cooperation and Key Figures
Polish intelligence sources provided a remarkable 43% of all reports received by the British secret services from continental Europe between 1939 and 1945. Many Poles also served within other Allied intelligence agencies, with figures like Krystyna Skarbek (also known as Christine Granville) gaining renown for her work with the United Kingdom's Special Operations Executive (SOE).
Resistance Linkages
While distinct, significant operational links existed between the Polish resistance movement (particularly the dominant Armia Krajowa) operating within occupied Poland and the armed forces in the West. The resistance gathered and transmitted vital intelligence to the West, including critical information on Nazi concentration camps and the development of the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket. In return, the Western forces organized supplies for the resistance and trained elite commandos, known as the Cichociemni, for covert operations in Poland. Despite these efforts, the Allies denied the Polish government's request to deploy the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade in Poland during operations like "Operation Tempest."
Legacy
Post-War Denouncement
By 1945, a growing anti-Polish sentiment emerged in Britain, fueled by fears of job competition from Polish immigrants among trade unions and concerns from figures like Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin. Simultaneously, there was apprehension in both Britain and America regarding the establishment of a police state in post-war Poland. Bevin, while offering asylum in the British Empire, urged Polish soldiers to return home, despite General Anders' insistence on immediate elections in Poland, which were becoming increasingly unlikely.
The Victory Parade Exclusion
A poignant symbol of this complex post-war climate was the exclusion of the Polish Armed Forces in the West from the London Victory Parade of 1946. Initially, the British government invited representatives of the newly recognized communist regime in Warsaw, who ultimately did not attend, likely due to pressure from Moscow. Public and press outcry led to an invitation for Polish RAF veterans, who, in solidarity with the uninvited Polish Army and Navy, refused to participate. The only Polish representative present was Colonel Jรณzef Kuropieska, the military attachรฉ of the communist regime, attending as a diplomatic courtesy.
Disbandment and Resettlement
The Polish Armed Forces in the West were officially disbanded in 1947. Many soldiers chose to remain in exile rather than return to communist-controlled Poland, where they faced potential persecution as "enemies of the state" due to their loyalty to the government-in-exile and perceived Western influences. This situation became known as the "Western betrayal," highlighting the Allied governments' failure to uphold promises made to Poland. The British government established the Polish Resettlement Corps to assist 114,000 Polish soldiers in settling in the United Kingdom. The Polish Resettlement Act of 1947 facilitated their integration, significantly increasing the Polish minority in the UK. Many also emigrated to Polish Canadian and Polish Australian communities, and a 1948 U.S. law (amended in 1950) allowed Polish soldiers demobilized in Great Britain to immigrate to the United States, where they formed associations like the Polish Veterans of World War II.
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References
References
- General Wร ยadysร ยaw Anders Mรยฉmoires 1939รขยย1946, Paris 1948, ed. La Jeune Parque
- Rudolf Falkowski, THE VICTORY PARADE. Last accessed on 31 March 2007.
- The Poles in the Battle of Britain
- The Battle of the Atlantic and the Polish Navy. Retrieved on 31 July 2007.
- Eastern Europe in World War II: October 1939-May 1945. Lecture notes of prof Anna M. Cienciala. Last accessed on 21 December 2006.
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