The Renaissance Colossus
Pope Julius II: Architect of Power and Patron of Genius, a central figure who reshaped the Papacy and the Italian Renaissance.
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The Warrior Pope
Head of Church and State
Pope Julius II, born Giuliano della Rovere (1443–1513), served as the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 1503 until his death. Often known as the "Warrior Pope," "Battle Pope," or "Fearsome Pope," he is widely believed to have chosen his papal name in emulation of Julius Caesar, rather than Pope Julius I. His pontificate was a pivotal period in the High Renaissance, leaving an indelible cultural and political legacy.
Political and Diplomatic Acumen
Julius II's policies during the Italian Wars significantly enhanced the power and centralization of the Papal States. His diplomatic and political influence ensured the papacy remained a crucial force throughout the 16th century in Italy and Europe. He famously proclaimed his goal to "free Italy from the barbarians," referring to foreign powers occupying Italian territories.
Monumental Patronage
His reign saw the establishment of the Vatican Museums and the initiation of the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in 1506. That same year, he founded the renowned Swiss Guard for papal protection. Julius II also commissioned some of the most iconic works of the Renaissance, including the Raphael Rooms and Michelangelo's breathtaking paintings in the Sistine Chapel, beginning in 1508.
Indulgences and Satire
Julius II permitted individuals seeking indulgences to donate money to the Church, with these funds designated for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica. This practice, among others, drew fierce posthumous satire, notably from Erasmus of Rotterdam in his work Julius Excluded from Heaven, which depicted a worldly pope denied entry to paradise.
Early Life
Origins and Family
Giuliano della Rovere was born on December 5, 1443, in Albisola, near Savona, within the Republic of Genoa. He hailed from the della Rovere family, a noble but financially modest lineage. His father was Raffaello della Rovere, and his mother, Theodora Manerola, was of Greek descent. He had three brothers—Bartolomeo, Leonardo, and Giovanni—and a sister, Lucina.
Education and Mentorship
Giuliano's early education was overseen by his uncle, Father Francesco della Rovere, a Franciscan friar who later became Pope Sixtus IV. His uncle took him under his special care, sending him to the Franciscan friary in Perugia to study sciences at the university. Despite this academic path, Giuliano was reportedly less interested in theology, showing a greater admiration for military leaders.
Character and Ambition
As a young man, della Rovere was known for a rough, coarse demeanor and a propensity for strong language. He was a man of action, driven by ambition. In the late 1490s, he forged an uneasy alliance with Cardinal de’ Medici and his cousin Giulio de’ Medici, both future popes, united by a shared desire to end foreign occupation of Italian lands.
The Cardinalate
Rapid Ascent Through Nepotism
Following his uncle Francesco della Rovere's election as Pope Sixtus IV in August 1471, Giuliano's ecclesiastical career accelerated dramatically. He was appointed Bishop of Carpentras in October 1471 and, in a clear act of nepotism, was elevated to the cardinalate in December of the same year, receiving the titular church of San Pietro in Vincoli, previously held by his uncle.
Pluralism and Papal Legate
Giuliano was known for serial simony and pluralism, holding numerous powerful offices simultaneously. In addition to the archbishopric of Avignon, he held at least eight bishoprics, including Lausanne, Coutances, and Catania. He served multiple terms as a Papal Legate, leading armies to Todi, Spoleto, and Città di Castello, and undertaking diplomatic missions to France to broker peace, raise funds for crusades against the Ottomans, and negotiate prisoner releases.
Personal Life and Family Affairs
In 1479, he served as Chamberlain of the College of Cardinals, managing the College's revenues. By 1483, he was promoted to Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia, a position that carried the privilege of consecrating an elected pope if he was not already a bishop, a role he fulfilled for Pius III. Around this time, in 1483, his illegitimate daughter, Felice della Rovere, was born. He later arranged for her mother, Lucrezia Normanni, to marry Bernardino de Cupis.
Conflict with Naples and Borgia Rivalry
Under Pope Innocent VIII, Giuliano became a principal advisor, involving the papacy in the "Conspiracy of the Barons" against Ferdinand I of Naples. This venture ultimately damaged the della Rovere family's prestige. His rivalry with Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia (later Pope Alexander VI) intensified, leading Giuliano to seek refuge at Ostia and later align with King Charles VIII of France in a military campaign against the Borgias, though this French invasion ultimately failed.
The Papacy of Julius II
Election and Anti-Borgia Stance
A seasoned member of the Sacred College, Giuliano della Rovere secured his election as Pope on November 1, 1503, through astute diplomacy and, reportedly, bribery. His election was swift, taking only a few hours, with only two votes not cast for him. Upon his election, he immediately declared a damnatio memoriae against his predecessor, Alexander VI, forbidding any mention or thought of the Borgias and ordering their apartments to be repurposed.
Consolidating Papal Authority in Italy
Julius II dedicated his pontificate to strengthening the temporal authority of the Papal States. He reconciled the powerful Roman families of Orsini and Colonna and embarked on military campaigns to reclaim territories. In 1506, he personally led an army to successfully liberate Perugia and Bologna from their despots, Gian Paolo Baglioni and Giovanni II Bentivoglio, respectively.
The League of Cambrai and Holy League
In 1508, Julius II formed the League of Cambrai with France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Aragon, primarily to reclaim Venetian Romagna. After achieving this, he swiftly reconciled with Venice in 1510 and formed the Holy League in 1511, this time against France, aiming to expel French influence from Italy. He personally led papal forces at the victorious Siege of Mirandola in 1511.
Lateran Council and Church Reform
In May 1512, Julius II convened the Fifth Lateran Council, fulfilling an oath made upon his election. This council was partly a response to a "false council" instigated by French and Imperial powers to undermine him. At the Council, Julius affirmed ultramontanism and sought to implement significant reforms, particularly against simony in papal conclaves, a practice he himself had witnessed and, arguably, engaged in.
Enduring Legacy
Architectural Visionary
Beyond his military and political endeavors, Julius II is celebrated for his profound patronage of the arts and architecture. He initiated the ambitious project to replace the ancient Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter's with a grand new structure, laying its foundation stone in 1506 with Donato Bramante as the architect. He also commissioned Bramante to create new urban thoroughfares in Rome, the Via Giulia and Via della Lungara, as part of his vision for the city's renewal.
Patron of Renaissance Masters
Julius II was a close friend and patron to many of the High Renaissance's greatest artists. He commissioned Raphael for the iconic Raphael Rooms in the Vatican Palace and, most famously, Michelangelo for the monumental ceiling frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. These commissions cemented his place as one of history's most significant art patrons, transforming Rome into a vibrant artistic center.
A Forceful Character
Historians often describe Julius II as a manly, virile, and energetic man of action whose courage was instrumental in saving the Papacy during a tumultuous era. He was known for his violent temper, gruff manner, and direct approach. Despite his personal struggles with illness and fatigue, he maintained a relentless pace, personally leading armies and engaging in complex political maneuvers.
The Bearded Pope
Julius II is famously depicted with a beard, notably in Raphael's portrait. He wore his beard from June 1511 to March 1512 as a sign of mourning for the loss of Bologna by the Papal States. This was a significant departure from canon law, which had forbidden facial hair for popes since the 13th century. His decision challenged convention and set a precedent, with later popes, such as Clement VII, also adopting beards during periods of mourning.
Artistic Patronage
The Golden Age of Roman Art
Julius II's reign is synonymous with the flourishing of the High Renaissance in Rome. His vision was to restore Rome to its ancient glory as the Christian capital, and he spared no expense in commissioning the greatest artists of his time. This era saw an unprecedented convergence of genius, leading to works that define Western art.
Rebuilding St. Peter's
The most ambitious architectural project of his pontificate was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica. He rejected older designs, opting for a grander vision. On April 18, 1506, he laid the foundation stone for Donato Bramante's revolutionary design, initiating the demolition of the ancient Constantinian basilica. This monumental undertaking symbolized the renewed power and ambition of the Papacy.
Michelangelo's Masterpieces
Julius II famously commissioned Michelangelo for several iconic works. The most renowned is the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, a fresco cycle depicting scenes from Genesis, which took four years to complete. He also commissioned Michelangelo's tomb, though it was never fully realized to its original grand design and is now housed in San Pietro in Vincoli.
Raphael's Vatican Frescoes
Raphael, another protégé of Julius II, was commissioned to decorate the papal apartments, now known as the Raphael Rooms. These frescoes, including the iconic "School of Athens," transformed the Vatican Palace and showcased Raphael's mastery of composition, perspective, and humanistic ideals. Julius II's patronage of Raphael and Michelangelo fostered a creative rivalry that pushed both artists to new heights.
Final Days
Declining Health
By May 1512, Pope Julius II was acutely aware of his failing health, despite reassurances from some cardinals. His Master of Ceremonies, Paris de Grassis, noted his diminishing strength. He continued his relentless schedule of Masses, church visits, and audiences, but by Christmas Eve, he was confined to bed with a fever, having lost his appetite, though doctors struggled to diagnose his specific ailment.
Last Rites and Passing
On February 19, 1513, he received Holy Communion and a plenary indulgence. The following day, he again received Holy Communion from Cardinal Raffaele Riario. Pope Julius II died of a fever during the night of February 20–21, 1513, at the age of 69, bringing an end to a transformative pontificate.
Burial and Memorial
His funeral was conducted by Paris de Grassis on the evening of February 21, 1513. Julius II is interred in St. Peter's Basilica, alongside his uncle Pope Sixtus IV. Their remains were desecrated during the Sack of Rome in 1527. Today, a simple marble tombstone marks their resting place on the floor in front of the monument to Pope Clement X, rather than in Michelangelo's grand "Tomb of Pope Julius II" in San Pietro in Vincoli, which was completed much later and in an abbreviated form. He was succeeded by Pope Leo X.
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References
References
- Until the 20th century, a Cardinal did not have to be in major Holy Orders (Bishop, Priest, Deacon – which involved the vow of celibacy), unless he hoped to vote in a papal conclave. Even then, he could be dispensed.
- Eubel 1914, p. 153.
- Dumesnil 1873, p. 6: "Lorsqu' il fut devenu gá¸ná¸ral de cet ordre, Sixte l'attacha au Couvent de Pá¸rouse, afin qu'il y apprît les sciences".
- Denis de Sainte-Marthe, Gallia Christiana I (Paris 1715), p. 829.Eubel 1914, p. 39 n. 351; p. 40 n. 355.
- Burchard 1883, I, p. 124.
- Burchard 1883, I, p. 183. A note in the Acta Cameralia records that della Rovere returned to Rome on 12 September 1486: Eubel 1914, p. 49 n. 521.
- Gregorovius 1900, VII.2, pp. 445â446.Pastor 1902, VI, pp. 65â66.
- The richest was Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, at 30,000 ducats. Pastor 1902, VI, pp. 88â93.
- 24 January 1502: Eubel 1914, p. 108. Brosch, p. 88. Pastor 1902, VI, p. 121, note §.
- Eubel 1914, p. 56 n. 652. Gregorovius 1900, VII.2, pp. 492â493.
- Eubel 1914, p. 56 n. 656. Gregorovius 1900, VII.2, pp. 501â502, 506â507.
- J.J. Scarisbrick, Henry VIII (Berkeley-Los Angeles: University of California Press 1968), pp. 151â155, 163â197.
- Marcello Simonetta (2008). The Montefeltro Conspiracy: A Renaissance Mystery Decoded, (New York: Doubleday), pp. 140, 144, 170, 180â182, 204.
- Mansi 1902, pp. 561â578.Pastor 1902, VI, pp. 389â394, 414â415.
- Mansi 1902, p. 653.Cesare Baronius, Annales ecclesiastici, under the year 1511, §§ 915 (in Theiner's edition), pp. 540â545; the bull is subscribed by twenty-one cardinals.
- Gregorovius 1900, VII.1, pp. 101â103.Pastor 1902, VI, pp. 364â365, 406â412.
- Pastor 1902, VI, pp. 427â429.Mansi 1902, pp. 747â752.
- Pastor 1902, VI, p. 431.Döllinger 1882, p. 419, for the original Latin.
- "...he was so ill that he did not expect to be able to stay alive very long." Döllinger 1882, p. 427.
- Sanuto I Diarii, Vol. XV pp. 559, 554: Ha febre dopia terzana (malaria).
- Pastor 1902, V, p. 326. The chapel was destroyed under Pius VI to make way for the Braccio Nuovo.
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