Punjabi Pathways
A Linguistic Journey Through the Land of Five Rivers.
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Introduction to Punjabi
A Major Indo-Aryan Language
Punjabi is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Punjab region of Pakistan and India. It ranks among the most widely spoken native languages globally, with an estimated 150 million native speakers.[24][25]
Global Reach
It holds the position of the most spoken first language in Pakistan and is the eleventh most spoken in India. A significant Punjabi diaspora contributes to its presence across Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and the Persian Gulf states.[43]
Distinct Scripts and Tones
Punjabi is uniquely characterized by its use of lexical tone, a feature uncommon in the broader Indo-European family. It is written in two primary scripts: Shahmukhi in Pakistan and Gurmukhi in India.[28]
Historical Trajectory
Etymological Roots
The name "Punjabi" originates from the Persian term "Panj-āb," meaning 'Five Waters.' This refers to the five major tributaries of the Indus River that define the Punjab region. The name is a translation of the Sanskrit term "Panchanada," signifying the 'Land of the Five Rivers.'[27][28]
Linguistic Evolution
Punjabi evolved from Prakrit languages, specifically from the Paishachi Prakrit spoken in northwestern India. It emerged as an Apabhramsha (a form of Prakrit) around the 7th century AD, stabilizing by the 10th century. Early Punjabi literature dates back to the Nath Yogi period (9th-14th centuries).[20][21][22]
External Influences
Over centuries, Punjabi vocabulary has been enriched by significant loanwords from Arabic and Persian, introduced through historical conquests and cultural exchanges. Later influences include Urdu, and to a lesser extent, Portuguese, Greek, Japanese, Chinese, and English.[24][25][26][28]
Origins and Development
From Prakrit to Punjabi
Punjabi traces its lineage to Prakrit languages, evolving from Paishachi Apabhramsha. The period between the 10th and 16th centuries is recognized as 'Old Punjabi,' followed by 'Medieval Punjabi' from the 16th to 19th centuries.[1][21][22] Amir Khusrau, in the early 14th century, referenced the dialect around Lahore as 'Lahauri.'[23]
Script Evolution
The Gurmukhi script, developed in the 16th century, is the official standard in India. In Pakistan, the Shahmukhi script, derived from the Perso-Arabic script, is predominantly used. Historical scripts like Takri and Laṇḍā also played a role in Punjabi's written tradition.[38]
Linguistic Influences
Persian and Arabic Impact
Arabic and Modern Persian have significantly influenced Punjabi vocabulary, contributing words like zamīn (land) and shahr (city). Through Persian, many Arabic-derived terms, such as dukān (shop) and ghazal (poem), were adopted. Turkic words also entered the lexicon.[24][25]
Modern Borrowings
While Persian and Arabic influences are substantial, Punjabi has also incorporated words from Portuguese, Greek, Japanese, Chinese, and English. The latter, particularly English, has influenced technical vocabulary and is often used alongside Punjabi in formal and digital contexts.[28]
Geographic Distribution
Pakistan
Punjabi is the most prevalent native language in Pakistan, spoken by approximately 37% of the population (88.9 million speakers as per the 2023 census). Historically, census figures have varied due to the classification of related dialects like Saraiki and Hindko.[29][30]
India
In India, Punjabi is the official language of Punjab state and an additional official language in Haryana and Delhi. The 2011 census recorded 33.12 million speakers, reflecting its significant presence across northern Indian states.[32]
Phonological Features
Lexical Tone
Punjabi is distinctive among Indo-Aryan languages for its system of lexical tones. Typically, three tones are identified: low (high-falling), high (low-rising), and level (neutral). These tones can differentiate word meanings, often arising from the historical loss of aspiration in certain consonants.[53][54]
Consonants and Vowels
Punjabi features a range of consonants, including dental, retroflex, and postalveolar sounds. Its vowel system includes distinctions in height, backness, and length, with nasalized counterparts. The language also exhibits gemination (consonant doubling), marked by specific diacritics in its writing systems.[46][66]
Grammatical Structure
Word Order and Case
Punjabi typically follows a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order. Grammatical case is marked by postpositions, which function similarly to prepositions in English. The language distinguishes two genders, two numbers, and six grammatical cases: direct, oblique, vocative, ablative, locative, and instrumental.[67][68]
Verb System
The verb system is primarily structured around aspect and tense/mood. Verbs inflect with a single suffix and are often followed by auxiliary verbs and postpositions to convey grammatical function.[71] Adjectives also agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case.
Writing Systems
Gurmukhi Script
In India, Punjabi is officially written using the Gurmukhi script. This Brahmic script, developed in the 16th century, features unique elements like the 'adhak' for consonant gemination. It is widely used in education, media, and official communications.[38]
Shahmukhi Script
In Pakistan, the Shahmukhi alphabet, based on the Perso-Arabic script, is used. It incorporates additional characters and modifications to represent Punjabi phonology accurately. It is influenced by Urdu and draws from Persian and Arabic vocabulary.[27]
Historical Scripts
Historically, various scripts such as Takri, Laṇḍā, and Devanagari have been used for writing Punjabi, reflecting the region's diverse cultural and linguistic history.[4]
Major Dialects
Standard Punjabi
Standard Punjabi, often referred to as Majhi, is based on the Majhi dialect. It serves as the primary variety for education and media in both India and Pakistan, though minor differences exist between the two regions.[38][39]
Eastern Punjabi
This group encompasses varieties spoken in Pakistani Punjab (Northern Punjabi), Indian Punjab, parts of Rajasthan, and Haryana. It includes dialects like Majhi, Malwai, Doabi, and Puadhi.[40]
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References
References
- [10]
- [11]
- In blocks and divisions with at least 10% Punjabi speakers[12]
- Punjabi is the British English spelling, and PañjÄbÄ« is the Romanized spelling from the native scripts.
- Standard or Eastern dialect. Pakistani Majhi and Western dialects usually pronounce it as /käË˨ɾáµ/.
- bindÄ«/á¹ippÄ« or nÅ«n Ä¡unna before a consonant often causes it to be pre-nasalised, except where there is a true nasal vowel.
- Gill, Harjeet Singh and Gleason Jr, Henry A. (1969). A Reference Grammar of Panjabi. Patiala: Department of Linguistics, Punjabi University
- The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume One â A to Devo). Volume 1. Amaresh Datta, ed. Sahitya Akademi: 2006, 352.
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