What entities define the self-identified categories of race and ethnicity collected in the U.S. census?

The U.S. Census Bureau and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) define the set of self-identified categories for race and ethnicity that residents choose to best represent their origins.

How does the U.S. Census Bureau, guided by the OMB, define the concept of race?

The OMB defines the concept of race for census purposes as a social-political construct, not primarily biological or genetic. It takes into account social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry, reflecting a social definition of race recognized in the United States.

How is Hispanic or Latino origin addressed in the U.S. census in relation to race?

In the U.S. census, residents are asked to indicate their race and can also indicate their origins. A separate question specifically asks whether they are of Hispanic or Latino origin, treating race and ethnicity as distinct identities.

What was the total population recorded in the very first U.S. Census conducted in 1790?

The first U.S. Census, conducted on August 2, 1790, recorded the population of the United States as 3,929,214 individuals.

What categories were used to classify individuals in the 1790 United States Census?

The 1790 census categorized inhabitants into several groups: free white males aged 16 and over (including heads of families), free white males under 16, free white females, all other free persons (categorized by sex and color), and slaves.

What happened to a significant portion of the original census data from 1790 to 1830?

Approximately one-third of the original census data collected between 1790 and 1830 has been lost or destroyed. This lost data includes records from several states and territories.

Who was responsible for collecting census data in the United States until 1840, and what change occurred after that year?

U.S. marshals were responsible for conducting the census until 1840. Starting in 1850, a specialized census bureau within the Department of the Interior took over the tabulation of census data.

What controversial finding in the 1840 census led to opposition from the Whig Party?

The 1840 census included a claim that free Black Americans in the Northern United States exhibited higher rates of 'insane' or 'idiotic' behavior compared to enslaved Black Americans, which was opposed by Northern Whig Party members.

How did the 1850 census change the way residents were enumerated compared to previous censuses?

The 1850 census marked a significant shift by listing free persons individually, rather than by head of household. It also introduced separate questionnaires for free inhabitants and slaves.

What color classifications were used in the 1850 census for free inhabitants, and how were slaves categorized?

For free inhabitants in 1850, the census questionnaire used a column marked 'B' for Black and 'M' for Mulatto, leaving it blank for white individuals. Slaves were not listed individually but were classified by gender and age, with 'B' for Black and 'M' for Mulatto.

Which census year first distinguished between different Asian ethnic groups, such as Chinese and Japanese, and why?

The 1890 census was the first to distinguish among different Asian ethnic groups, like Japanese and Chinese, due to increased immigration from these regions.

What new racial categories were introduced in the 1890 census, and when did the term 'race' first appear on questionnaires?

The 1890 census introduced terms like 'White,' 'Black,' 'Mulatto,' 'Quadroon,' 'Octoroon,' 'Chinese,' 'Japanese,' and 'Indian' for race categories. The term 'race' itself began appearing on questionnaires starting with the 1890 census.

What was unique about the 'Mexican' racial classification in the 1930 census?

For the first and only time, the 1930 census listed 'Mexican' as a race, instructing enumerators to classify all people born in Mexico or whose parents were born in Mexico as Mexican, rather than under any other racial category.

What policy shift occurred in 1940 regarding the classification of people of Mexican descent?

In 1940, following President Franklin D. Roosevelt's 'Good Neighbor policy' and protests from Mexico, federal agencies, including the Census Bureau, uniformly classified people of Mexican descent as white to improve relations and minimize discrimination.

What was the Census Bureau's role in the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, and when was this role confirmed?

The Census Bureau's data was used for the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. Although the bureau denied its role for decades, this was finally proven in 2007.

How did the 1970 census change the approach to collecting information on origin and language?

The 1970 census included questions about a sample of respondents' place of birth, parents' birthplace, naturalization status, language spoken at home as a child, and how well English was spoken. It also included specific questions about Hispanic origin, listing categories like Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, and Central or South American.

What significant change in self-identification occurred with the 1970 Census?

Since the 1970 Census, Americans have been allowed to provide their own racial self-identification, a change influenced by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to ensure more accurate data.

How did the 1980 census categorize respondents in terms of ethnicity?

Starting with the 1980 Census, in addition to race, all respondents were categorized by membership in one of two ethnic categories: 'Hispanic or Latino' and 'Not Hispanic or Latino'.

What was the impact of the 1997 OMB revisions to federal data standards on race and ethnicity?

In 1997, the OMB issued revisions allowing respondents to mark 'one or more races,' acknowledging the increasing number of mixed-race individuals and requests to record full ancestry. This change meant that data from the 2000 census onward were not directly comparable to earlier censuses.

How did the 2000 census allow for the identification of multiple races, and what was the consequence for data comparability?

The 2000 census significantly changed data collection by allowing respondents to select one or more race categories. This resulted in nearly seven million Americans identifying with multiple races, making the 2000 data not directly comparable with previous census results.

What were the definitions of 'White' and 'Black or African American' used in the 2000 census?

In the 2000 census, 'White' included people with origins in Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa, encompassing entries like Irish, German, and Arab. 'Black or African American' included people with origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa, such as African American, Nigerian, or Haitian.

What did the American Anthropological Association (AAA) recommend regarding the terms 'race' and 'ethnicity' in federal data collection?

The AAA recommended combining 'race' and 'ethnicity' into a single 'race/ethnicity' question for the 2000 census, arguing that 'race' is not a scientific phenomenon and has negative connotations. They also later recommended eliminating the term 'race' entirely for future censuses.

How did the 2010 census attempt to clarify the distinction between Hispanic ethnicity and race?

The 2010 census included the explicit statement, 'For this census, Hispanic origins are not races,' and modified the Hispanic origin question to use terms like 'Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin' to further differentiate it from racial categories.

What was the purpose of the 'Some other race' category in the census, and why was it considered for elimination?

The 'Some other race' category was intended for responses not fitting into the standard racial categories. The Census Bureau considered eliminating it before the 2000 census, as it is not considered an official race, but it remained on forms.

What changes were made to the 'Some Other Race' category instructions in the 2020 census?

In the 2020 census, the instructions for the 'Some Other Race' category were updated to 'Print race or origin' to align with the primary instruction to 'Mark one or more boxes AND print origins,' aiming for greater clarity.

What significant change regarding Middle Eastern or North African (MENA) populations was introduced in the 2020 census?

The 2020 census was the first to specifically solicit Middle Eastern North African (MENA) responses through the write-in option for the White racial category, recognizing that many in this group may not perceive themselves as White.

What is the significance of the proposed addition of a MENA racial category by the OMB?

The proposal to add a MENA category is significant because it could allow for more targeted funding, social programs, and political representation for a group that may not identify as White, as suggested by studies showing distinct cultural and economic differences.

According to the OMB, what are the primary uses of race data collected through the decennial census?

The OMB states that race data from the decennial census are crucial for implementing federal programs related to equal employment opportunities, assessing racial disparities in health and environmental risks, and supporting basic research for policy decisions.

How is data on ethnic groups utilized by federal and local governments?

Data on ethnic groups are vital for enforcing federal statutes like the Voting Rights Act (e.g., bilingual election rules) and the Civil Rights Act (e.g., equal employment opportunities). Local governments also use this data for programs like identifying underserved populations for medical services or evaluating financial institutions' community credit needs.

What did the 2000 census data reveal about the number of Americans identifying with two or more races?

The 2000 census data indicated that nearly seven million Americans identified as members of two or more races, a result of the new option allowing respondents to select multiple race categories.

How did the 1990 census handle individuals who marked multiple race options or provided multiple write-in responses?

The 1990 census was not designed to capture multiple racial responses effectively. If individuals marked 'other' race and provided multiple write-ins, their response was assigned based on the first race written (e.g., 'black-white' was coded as 'black').

What was the 'one-drop rule' as applied in the 1930 census?

The 'one-drop rule' in the 1930 census meant that a person with both white and Black ancestry was to be recorded as 'Negro,' regardless of the proportion of Black lineage.

What specific change was made to the 'Negro' category in the 2020 census?

After 100 years, the term 'Negro' was removed from the 2020 census category. The classification shifted from 'Black, African Am., or Negro' to 'Black or African Am.' on questionnaires and electronic instruments, following advocacy for its removal.

What does the table on 'Percent net coverage error by race and Hispanic origin: 2010 and 2020' indicate about the accuracy of census counts?

The table shows significant differences in net coverage error between 2010 and 2020 for several groups, including Non-Hispanic White alone (increased), Asian (increased), Some other race (increased undercount), and Hispanic or Latino (increased undercount), suggesting shifts in census accuracy for these populations.

What factors contributed to the undercounts of certain groups, such as Black people, Latinos, and Native Americans, in the 2020 census?

Factors contributing to undercounts in the 2020 census include the coronavirus pandemic causing delays in the Post-Enumeration Survey, delays in field work, migration of college students, and respondents failing to provide necessary information for survey matching.

How did the U.S. Census Bureau's definition of 'White' in the 2000 census differ from previous understandings?

In the 2000 census, the definition of 'White' was expanded to include people with origins in Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa, explicitly incorporating groups like Arabs and people from the Near East, which was a broader inclusion than in some prior censuses.

What was the primary reason cited for the OMB's 1997 decision to allow respondents to mark 'one or more races'?

The OMB's decision to allow respondents to mark 'one or more races' was based on evidence of increasing numbers of mixed-race children and a desire to measure diversity more accurately, responding to requests from individuals who wanted to acknowledge their full ancestry.

When did Americans begin to self-identify their race in the U.S. census, and what prompted this change?

Americans began self-identifying their race starting with the 1970 Census. This change was driven by reforms following the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed for more accurate census data.

What were the specific categories used for Hispanic or Latino origin in the 2010 census?

In the 2010 census, the Hispanic origin question offered options such as 'No, not of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin,' 'Yes, Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano,' 'Yes, Puerto Rican,' 'Yes, Cuban,' and 'Yes, another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin – Print origin'.

What is the Census Bureau's definition of 'Hispanic or Latino'?

The Census Bureau defines 'Hispanic or Latino' as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of their race.

How did the 1930 census handle individuals of mixed Black and American Indian ancestry?

In the 1930 census, individuals with mixed Black and American Indian ancestry were to be recorded as 'Negro' unless they were considered predominantly American Indian and accepted as such within their community.

What was the Census Bureau's stance on the 'Mexican' race category in 1940 compared to 1930?

The 'Mexican' race category was eliminated in the 1940 census, and people of Mexican descent were counted with the white population, a shift from the 1930 census where 'Mexican' was listed as a distinct race.

What was the 'Color or Race' question in the 1900 census, and what specific instructions were given for American Indians?

The 'Color or Race' question in the 1900 census was slightly modified, removing 'Mulatto.' An 'Indian Population Schedule' was also included, with instructions for enumerators to ask American Indians about the 'Fraction of person's lineage that is white'.

What did the 2000 census data indicate about the 'Some other race' category?

In the 2000 census, the 'Some other race' category included responses not covered by the main racial categories, such as multiracial, mixed, or interracial entries, and also included Hispanic/Latino groups if they marked 'Some other race'.

What is the significance of the 'Net coverage error' reported in the census accuracy tables?

Net coverage error indicates the difference between the estimated population and the census count for a specific group. A positive number suggests an overcount, while a negative number suggests an undercount, highlighting potential inaccuracies in the census enumeration for that group.

What did the 2015 Rutgers University study find regarding the classification of Arab populations?

The Rutgers University study found significant inequalities in income, citizenship, and English-speaking rates between New Jersey's White and Arab populations, suggesting they might be different enough culturally and economically to warrant a separate census category.

How did the 2020 census update the example groups for the Hispanic origin question?

The 2020 census reordered the example groups for the Hispanic origin question from 'Argentinean, Colombian, Dominican, Nicaraguan, Salvadoran, Spaniard, and so on' to 'Salvadoran, Dominican, Colombian, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Ecuadorian, etc.' to better reflect the diversity and population variations within the category.

What was the primary criticism of the practice of separating 'race' and 'ethnicity' as distinct categories in the census?

The practice of separating 'race' and 'ethnicity' has been criticized by organizations like the American Anthropological Association and members of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, suggesting that these concepts are not always clearly defined and that many respondents view them as a single identity.

What was the purpose of the OMB's 1997 revisions to federal data standards on race and ethnicity?

The OMB's 1997 revisions aimed to provide consistent data on race and ethnicity across federal agencies, largely driven by new responsibilities to enforce civil rights laws and a recognition of increasing racial diversity.

How did the 1990 census handle write-in responses for the 'other' race category when multiple races were indicated?

In the 1990 census, if an individual marked 'other' race and provided multiple write-in responses, the response was assigned based on the order in which the races were written, potentially leading to misclassification.

Race And Ethnicity In The United States Census Wiki: Mapping Identity: A Historical Journey Through US Census Race and Ethnicity

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Defining Identity

Self-Identification

In the United States census, the U.S. Census Bureau and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) define categories of race and ethnicity that residents self-identify with. This approach emphasizes personal identification over scientific or anthropological definitions, reflecting social and cultural characteristics alongside ancestry.

Race vs. Ethnicity

Race and ethnicity are treated as distinct concepts. The census specifically asks about Hispanic or Latino origin in a separate question. This distinction acknowledges that individuals can belong to various racial groups while also identifying with Hispanic or Latino heritage, leading to complex data reporting.

OMB Standards

The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) establishes standards for collecting and presenting federal data on race and ethnicity. These standards, initially outlined in Directive 15, have evolved to reflect changing societal understandings and the need for consistent, comparable data across federal agencies, often driven by civil rights enforcement.

Historical Evolution

Early Censuses (1790-1960)

From the first census in 1790 until 1960, census enumerators, not residents, determined and recorded a person's race. Racial categories were not static; they changed over time, with groups being added or removed. The initial categories reflected the societal structures of the era, including distinctions like "Free white males," "Free white females," "All other free persons," and "Slaves."

Shift to Self-Identification (1970 onwards)

Following the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the census shifted to self-identification starting with the 1970 census. This change aimed for more accurate data collection and empowered individuals to define their own racial identities. Since 1980, a separate question has been used to identify Hispanic or Latino origin.

The 1790 Census Data

The very first census in 1790 categorized individuals into specific groups. The data collected provides a snapshot of the population structure at the nation's founding:

District	Free White Males (16+)	Free White Males (<16)	Free White Females	All Other Free Persons	Slaves	Total
Vermont	22,435	22,328	40,505	271	0	85,539
New Hampshire	36,086	34,851	70,160	630	158	141,885
Maine	24,384	24,748	46,870	538	0	96,540
Massachusetts	95,453	87,289	190,582	5,463	0	378,787
Rhode Island	16,019	15,799	32,652	3,407	948	68,825
Connecticut	60,523	54,403	117,448	2,808	2,764	237,946
New York	83,700	78,122	152,320	4,654	21,324	340,120
New Jersey	45,251	41,416	83,287	2,762	11,423	184,139
Pennsylvania	110,788	106,948	206,363	6,537	3,737	434,373
Delaware	11,783	12,143	22,384	3,899	8,887	59,094
Maryland	55,915	51,339	101,395	8,043	103,036	319,728
Virginia	110,936	116,135	215,046	12,866	292,627	747,610
Kentucky	15,154	17,057	28,922	114	12,430	73,677
North Carolina	69,988	77,506	140,710	4,975	100,572	393,751
South Carolina	35,576	37,722	66,880	1,801	107,094	249,073
Georgia	13,103	14,044	25,739	398	29,264	82,548
Total	807,094	791,850	1,541,263	59,150	694,280	3,893,635

Note: Data from the earliest censuses faced challenges with accuracy and data preservation.

The Ethnicity Question

Separate Inquiry

Since the 1980 Census, a distinct question has been posed to determine Hispanic or Latino origin. This question asks respondents if they are of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin, offering options like Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, or other origins, regardless of race.

Intersectional Identity

The separation of race and ethnicity acknowledges that Hispanic or Latino individuals can identify with multiple racial categories. For instance, one can be both "White" and "Hispanic," or "Black" and "Hispanic," reflecting the complex, intersectional nature of identity in the United States.

Demographic Significance

In the 2000 Census, approximately 12.5% of the U.S. population identified as Hispanic or Latino, highlighting the growing demographic importance of this category in federal data collection and policy-making.

Evolving Categories

Historical Shifts

Census categories have undergone significant transformations. Terms like "Mulatto," "Quadroon," and "Octoroon" appeared in earlier censuses, reflecting evolving social constructs and racial classifications. The 1930 census, for example, instructed enumerators to classify individuals with both white and Black ancestry as "Negro" based on the "one-drop rule."

Multiple Races & MENA

Since the 2000 Census, respondents have been allowed to select more than one race, acknowledging the increasing prevalence of multiracial identities. More recently, there have been significant discussions and proposals, including by the OMB, to add a distinct "Middle Eastern or North African" (MENA) category, recognizing that many individuals in these groups do not perceive themselves as White.

1890: Distinguished Asian groups (Japanese, Chinese) and introduced "Mulatto," "Quadroon," "Octoroon."
1930: Removed "Mulatto" but reinforced the "one-drop rule" for Black ancestry classification. "Mexican" was briefly listed as a race.
1940: "Mexican" category removed; people of Mexican descent classified as White.
1970: Introduced "Negro or Black"; added questions on Hispanic origin.
2000: Allowed selection of multiple races; definitions expanded to include broader origins (e.g., "White" included Middle East/North Africa).
2020: Continued use of separate race/ethnicity questions; refined phrasing; included examples for write-ins; removed "Negro."
Proposed (2023/2024): OMB suggested a combined race/ethnicity question and a distinct MENA category.

Data Utility

Policy and Enforcement

Federal agencies rely heavily on census data for race and ethnicity to implement and monitor programs. This includes enforcing equal employment opportunities, assessing disparities in health and environmental risks, and ensuring compliance with civil rights legislation like the Voting Rights Act.

Legislative and Planning

States use census data for legislative redistricting. Local governments utilize it for planning essential services, such as healthcare access under the Public Health Service Act, and evaluating financial institutions' community reinvestment efforts.

Accuracy and Challenges

Undercounts and Overcounts

The Census Bureau acknowledges that certain demographic groups, particularly Black people, Latinos, and Native Americans (especially those on reservations), experience higher rates of undercounting. Conversely, other groups may be overcounted. These discrepancies impact the accuracy of demographic data.

External Factors

Events like the COVID-19 pandemic have significantly impacted census operations, causing delays in data collection and analysis (e.g., the Post-Enumeration Survey). Factors such as population mobility (e.g., students returning home) and respondent non-compliance further complicate accurate enumeration.

Conceptual Challenges

The very concepts of "race" and "ethnicity" are social constructs, leading to challenges in categorization. Organizations like the American Anthropological Association have advocated for eliminating the term "race" due to its lack of scientific basis and its historical association with racism, suggesting more nuanced terms like "ethnicity."

Future Directions

Proposed Revisions

The OMB is actively reviewing and proposing updates to its race and ethnicity standards. These include considering a combined question for race and ethnicity and formally recognizing a Middle Eastern or North African (MENA) category, acknowledging that current classifications may not fully capture the identities of these populations.

Adapting to Diversity

These proposed changes aim to better reflect the nation's increasing diversity and improve the accuracy and relevance of census data. The goal is to provide more precise information for policy, resource allocation, and understanding the evolving American populace.

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References

The figures for Massachusetts do not include the population of Maine. Though Maine was then a part of Massachusetts, the Maine figures were compiled separately, and are shown on the line for Maine.

Hephzibah V. Strmic-Paul, Brandon A. Jackson, and Steve Garner, "Race Counts: Racial and Ethnic Data on the U.S. Census and the Implications for Tracking Inequality," Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 4, no. 1 (2018): 1â13.

copy of the full 1930 census instructions https://www.census.gov/history/pdf/1930instructions.pdf

Patrick D. Lukens, A Quiet Victory for Latino Rights: FDR and the Controversy over Whiteness (University of Arizona Press, 2012)

The 1930 Census in Perspective, 1930census.com

Waite, Preston. US Census Bureau. "2010 Decennial Census Program." 2006. accessed July 7, 2008.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Race and ethnicity in the United States census Wikipedia page

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Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not demographic, sociological, or policy advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional consultation. Always refer to official U.S. Census Bureau documentation and consult with qualified experts for specific demographic analysis or policy decisions.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

Mapping Identity

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining Identity ℹ️

👤 Self-Identification

↔️ Race vs. Ethnicity

⚖️ OMB Standards

Historical Evolution 📅

📜 Early Censuses (1790-1960)

🗣️ Shift to Self-Identification (1970 onwards)

📊 The 1790 Census Data

The Ethnicity Question 🌍

❓ Separate Inquiry

🤝 Intersectional Identity

📈 Demographic Significance

Evolving Categories 🔄

📜 Historical Shifts

💡 Multiple Races & MENA

Data Utility 📈

🏛️ Policy and Enforcement

⚖️ Legislative and Planning

Accuracy and Challenges ⚠️

📉 Undercounts and Overcounts

🦠 External Factors

🤔 Conceptual Challenges

Future Directions 🚀

✍️ Proposed Revisions

🌐 Adapting to Diversity

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Identity

Self-Identification

Race vs. Ethnicity

OMB Standards

Historical Evolution

Early Censuses (1790-1960)

Shift to Self-Identification (1970 onwards)

The 1790 Census Data

The Ethnicity Question

Separate Inquiry

Intersectional Identity

Demographic Significance

Evolving Categories

Historical Shifts

Multiple Races & MENA

Data Utility

Policy and Enforcement

Legislative and Planning

Accuracy and Challenges

Undercounts and Overcounts

External Factors

Conceptual Challenges

Future Directions

Proposed Revisions

Adapting to Diversity

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice