Who is responsible for defining the self-identified categories of race and ethnicity collected in the U.S. census?

The U.S. Census Bureau and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) are responsible for defining the set of self-identified categories of race and ethnicity that residents choose to indicate their closest identification with.

How does the U.S. Census Bureau define racial categories?

The U.S. Census Bureau defines racial categories not as scientific or anthropological classifications, but as a social-political construct reflecting how respondents perceive themselves. These categories generally represent a social definition of race recognized in the country and take into account social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry, rather than primarily biological or genetic factors.

When did the U.S. Census transition from enumerators assigning race to individuals self-identifying their race?

From the first U.S. Census in 1790 up to the 1960 Census, government enumerators assigned a person's race. Since the 1970 Census, Americans have been able to provide their own racial self-identification.

What legislative changes prompted the shift to self-identification for race in the U.S. Census?

The shift to self-identification for race in the U.S. Census, beginning with the 1970 Census, was influenced by reforms brought about by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed to ensure more accurate census data.

When did the U.S. Census begin separating 'race' and 'ethnicity' as distinct categories?

Starting with the 1980 Census, respondents have been categorized by their race or races, and separately by their ethnicity, specifically as either 'Hispanic or Latino' or 'Not Hispanic or Latino'.

What significant change regarding racial identification was introduced in the 2000 Census?

Since the 2000 Census, Americans have been permitted to identify as belonging to more than one race, a change implemented by the OMB in 1997 to better record diversity and acknowledge individuals' full ancestry.

What are some key uses of race and ethnicity data collected by the U.S. Census?

Race and ethnicity data from the census are crucial for implementing federal programs such as those promoting equal employment opportunities and assessing racial disparities in health and environmental risks. This data also assists states with legislative redistricting and helps monitor compliance with the Voting Rights Act.

How is data on ethnic groups utilized by federal and local governments?

Data on ethnic groups are important for enforcing federal statutes like the Voting Rights Act (e.g., bilingual election rules) and the Civil Rights Act (e.g., equal employment opportunities). Local governments use this data to run programs and meet legislative requirements, such as identifying populations needing medical services or evaluating financial institutions' service to minority communities.

What were the racial categories used in the first U.S. Census in 1790?

The 1790 census categorized inhabitants into: free white males aged 16 years and over (including heads of families), free white males under 16 years, free white females, all other free persons (reported by sex and color), and slaves.

What was the purpose of distinguishing free white males aged 16 and over in the 1790 census?

This specific categorization in the 1790 census was intended to help assess the country's industrial and military potential.

What was the reported population of the United States in the 1790 census?

The population of the United States was recorded as 3,929,214 as of Census Day, August 2, 1790.

What challenges might have contributed to an undercount in the 1790 census, according to historical figures?

President George Washington and Thomas Jefferson believed the population was undercounted due to potential reasons such as refusal to participate, poor public transportation and roads, the dispersed nature of the population, and limitations of the technology available at the time.

How did the 1850 census change the way information about residents was collected?

The 1850 census marked a significant shift by listing free persons individually, rather than by head of household. It also used separate questionnaires for free inhabitants and slaves, and introduced specific markings ('B' for Black, 'M' for Mulatto) for color.

What was the controversy surrounding the 1840 census concerning Black Americans?

The 1840 census faced controversy for claiming that free Black Americans in the Northern United States exhibited higher rates of 'insane' or 'idiotic' behavior compared to enslaved Black Americans, leading to opposition from Northern members of the Whig Party.

How did the 1890 census begin to differentiate Asian ethnic groups?

The 1890 census started distinguishing between different Asian ethnic groups, such as Japanese and Chinese, due to an increase in immigration from these regions.

What was the significance of the 'Mulatto' classification in the 1930 census?

In the 1930 census, enumerators were instructed to no longer use the 'Mulatto' classification. Instead, individuals with both white and black ancestry were to be recorded as 'Negro', regardless of the proportion of black lineage, reflecting the 'one-drop rule'.

What unique racial category was included in the 1930 census?

For the first and only time, 'Mexican' was listed as a race in the 1930 census, with instructions for enumerators to classify all people born in or whose parents were born in Mexico as Mexican.

How did U.S. government policy in 1940 affect the classification of people of Mexican descent?

In 1940, influenced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt's 'Good Neighbor policy' and a federal judge's ruling, the government decided to uniformly classify people of Mexican descent as white to improve relations with Mexico and minimize discrimination.

What was the Census Bureau's role in the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II?

The Census Bureau's data was used for the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. Although this role was denied for decades, it was eventually proven in 2007.

What changes were made to the racial question in the 1970 census?

The 1970 census included 'Negro or Black' as an option, re-added 'Korean', and included an 'Other race' option. East Indians (from the Indian subcontinent) were counted as White.

What questions were included in the sample questionnaire for the 1970 census regarding origin or descent?

The 1970 sample questionnaire asked about birthplace, origin or descent (including specific options like Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central/South American, and Other Spanish), the birthplace of parents, and the language spoken at home as a child.

How did the 1990 census handle multiple racial write-in responses?

The 1990 census was not designed to capture multiple racial responses. When individuals marked the 'other' race option and provided multiple write-ins, the response was assigned based on the order written, with the first mentioned race being coded.

What was the impact of allowing multiple race selections in the 2000 Census?

The 2000 Census allowed respondents to select one or more race categories. This change meant that the data on race from 2000 are not directly comparable with data from previous censuses, requiring caution when interpreting changes in racial composition over time.

What was the definition of 'White' used in the 2000 Census?

In the 2000 Census, 'White' was defined as a person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa, including entries like Irish, German, Italian, Arab, or Polish.

What did the American Anthropological Association recommend regarding the 'race' and 'ethnicity' categories for the 2000 Census?

In 1997, the American Anthropological Association recommended that the OMB combine the 'race' and 'ethnicity' categories into a single 'race/ethnicity' question, arguing that 'race' and 'ethnicity' were not sufficiently defined and that many respondents viewed them as the same.

What was a key change in the 2010 Census to clarify the distinction between Hispanic origin and race?

The 2010 Census included the explicit statement, 'For this census, Hispanic origins are not races,' to help distinguish Hispanic ethnicity as separate from race.

What was the first census to specifically solicit Middle Eastern North African (MENA) responses?

The 2020 census was the first to specifically solicit Middle Eastern North African (MENA) responses by including it as a write-in option within the White racial category.

How did the 1930 census instructions address the classification of individuals with mixed black and American Indian ancestry?

In the 1930 census, individuals with mixed black and American Indian ancestry were to be recorded as 'Negro' unless they were considered predominantly American Indian and accepted as such within their community.

What was the historical progression of terminology used to classify Black individuals in the U.S. Census?

Terminology evolved from 'other free persons' by color and 'slaves' in 1790, to 'Black' (B) and 'Mulatto' (M) from 1850-1880, 'Black (or negro or negro descent)' in 1900, 'Negro' in 1930, 'Black' in 1970, and finally removing 'Negro' and using 'Black or African Am.' in 2020.

What factors contributed to the miscounting of certain demographic groups in the 2020 Census?

Factors contributing to miscounts in the 2020 Census included the coronavirus pandemic, delays in the Post-Enumeration Survey, delays in field operations, the migration of students, and some respondents not providing necessary information for matching census data.

How did the OMB's proposed revisions in 2023 and March 2024 address the classification of Middle Eastern or North African (MENA) individuals?

In 2023, the OMB suggested adding a MENA racial category and potentially combining race and ethnicity questions. By March 2024, revisions to Statistical Policy Directive No. 15 included a combined question and a MENA category, along with provisions for more detailed data disaggregation.

What was the rationale behind the OMB's 1997 decision to allow multiple race selections?

The OMB's 1997 decision to allow multiple race selections was based on evidence of increasing numbers of mixed-race children and a desire to accurately record diversity, responding to requests from individuals who wished to acknowledge their full ancestry.

How did the 2010 Census attempt to clarify the relationship between Hispanic origin and race?

The 2010 Census clarified this by adding the statement, 'For this census, Hispanic origins are not races,' and modifying the Hispanic origin question to 'Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin'.

What did the American Anthropological Association recommend regarding the term 'race' for future censuses?

The American Anthropological Association recommended the elimination of the term 'race' from OMB Directive 15 for future censuses, stating that 'race' has been scientifically proven not to be a natural phenomenon and that more accurate terms like 'ethnicity' should be used.

What was the significance of the 'Some other race' category in the 2010 Census?

The 'Some other race' category in the 2010 Census was not considered an official race, and campaigns encouraged groups like non-Hispanic West Indian Americans, Turkish Americans, Armenian Americans, Arab Americans, and Iranian Americans to use it to indicate their specific ethnic or national backgrounds.

How did the 2020 Census update the instructions for the 'Some Other Race' category?

The 2020 Census updated the instructions for the 'Some Other Race' category to read 'Print race or origin,' aligning with the primary instruction to 'Mark one or more boxes AND print origins'.

What was the primary reason cited for the decline in Mexican immigration to the U.S. after 2007?

The primary reasons cited for the decline in Mexican immigration after 2007 include shifts in political authority and policy changes related to the coronavirus pandemic, which affected legal residency, visa overstays, and border apprehensions.

How did the 1790 census categorize 'all other free persons'?

In the 1790 census, 'all other free persons' were categorized by sex and color, distinguishing them from 'free white' individuals and slaves.

What was the purpose of collecting data on the 'mother tongue' of foreign-born individuals in the 1910 census?

The 1910 census included a question about the 'mother tongue' of foreign-born individuals and those with foreign-born parents to gather information on language diversity within the population.

What was the 'one-drop rule' as applied in the 1930 census?

The 'one-drop rule' in the 1930 census meant that a person with both white and black ancestry was to be recorded as 'Negro,' regardless of the proportion of black lineage.

How did the 1940 census classification of people of Mexican descent align with the 'Good Neighbor policy'?

The 1940 census classified people of Mexican descent as white, aligning with President Roosevelt's 'Good Neighbor policy' aimed at improving relations with Mexico and ensuring fair treatment for individuals of Mexican origin.

What was the significance of the 2000 Census Quality Survey?

The Census Quality Survey after the 2000 Census was designed to assess the accuracy of race and Hispanic origin reporting and to develop methods for comparing 2000 census data with data from previous censuses.

What did the table on 'Percent net coverage error by race and Hispanic origin: 2010 and 2020' indicate about the accuracy of census counts?

The table indicated statistically significant differences from zero for the coverage error of 'Non-Hispanic White alone,' 'Asian,' 'Some other race,' and 'Hispanic or Latino' categories in the 2020 Census compared to 2010, suggesting potential undercounts or overcounts for these groups.

What factors did Michael Wines of The New York Times cite for discrepancies in the 2020 Census tally?

Michael Wines cited group quarters like college dormitories, long-term care facilities, and prisons as areas with significant tally discrepancies, particularly noting that university students returning home due to the pandemic made them harder to count in their usual residences.

What was the purpose of the OMB's review of the 1997 guidelines regarding MENA identities?

The OMB's review aims to move Middle Eastern or North African (MENA) identities from being classified under the White racial category into a new, distinct label, acknowledging that many individuals in these communities may not perceive themselves as White.

How did the 1910 census Indian Population Schedule gather information about American Indians?

The 1910 census Indian Population Schedule included questions asking individuals about the proportion of their lineage that was white, black, or American Indian.

What was the Census Bureau's stance on the 'Some other race' category prior to the 2000 Census?

Prior to the 2000 Census, the Census Bureau considered eliminating the 'Some other race' category, as it was not considered an official race category.

What did the 2015 Rutgers University study conclude about the classification of Arab populations?

The Rutgers University study found significant inequalities between White and Arab populations in New Jersey regarding household income, citizenship rates, and English-speaking abilities, suggesting that these differences might justify a separate census category for Arab populations.

What was the historical context for the inclusion of 'Negro' in census classifications?

The term 'Negro' first appeared in census instructions in 1900, and by 1930, specific instructions used the term, mandating that mixed-race individuals be counted as 'Negro' regardless of lineage proportion (the 'one-drop rule'). It was removed from census forms by 2020.

How did the 1970 census questionnaire address Hispanic origin or descent?

The 1970 census included a sample questionnaire asking about origin or descent, providing options such as Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, and Other Spanish.

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Definitions: Race vs. Ethnicity

Defining Categories

The U.S. Census Bureau, guided by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), utilizes self-identified categories for race and ethnicity. Residents select categories with which they most closely identify. Crucially, individuals are asked specifically about their Hispanic or Latino origin in a separate question, acknowledging race and ethnicity as distinct concepts.

Social Constructs, Not Biology

The OMB explicitly states that its racial categories are not based on scientific or anthropological definitions. Instead, they are social-political constructs reflecting how individuals perceive themselves, incorporating social and cultural characteristics alongside ancestry. The goal is to provide consistent federal data, often for enforcing civil rights legislation and assessing disparities.

Hispanic/Latino Origin

The category "Hispanic or Latino" is defined as pertaining to individuals of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, irrespective of their race. This distinction allows individuals of Hispanic origin to also identify with various racial categories, reflecting the complex nature of identity.

Historical Evolution

Early Censuses (1790-1890)

From 1790, census enumerators assigned race. Categories evolved, often reflecting societal biases and political needs. Early censuses distinguished between "free white males" (categorized by age), "free white females," "all other free persons," and "slaves." The 1890 census notably attempted finer distinctions among Asian groups and introduced terms like "Mulatto," "Quadroon," and "Octoroon," reflecting the pervasive influence of racial classification systems.

The inaugural 1790 census recorded population figures categorized as follows:

District	Free White Males (16+)	Free White Males (<16)	Free White Females	All Other Free Persons	Slaves	Total
Vermont	22,435	22,328	40,505	271	0	85,539
New Hampshire	36,086	34,851	70,160	630	158	141,885
Maine	24,384	24,748	46,870	538	0	96,540
Massachusetts	95,453	87,289	190,582	5,463	0	378,787
Rhode Island	16,019	15,799	32,652	3,407	948	68,825
Connecticut	60,523	54,403	117,448	2,808	2,764	237,946
New York	83,700	78,122	152,320	4,654	21,324	340,120
New Jersey	45,251	41,416	83,287	2,762	11,423	184,139
Pennsylvania	110,788	106,948	206,363	6,537	3,737	434,373
Delaware	11,783	12,143	22,384	3,899	8,887	59,094
Maryland	55,915	51,339	101,395	8,043	103,036	319,728
Virginia	110,936	116,135	215,046	12,866	292,627	747,610
Kentucky	15,154	17,057	28,922	114	12,430	73,677
North Carolina	69,988	77,506	140,710	4,975	100,572	393,751
South Carolina	35,576	37,722	66,880	1,801	107,094	249,073
Georgia	13,103	14,044	25,739	398	29,264	82,548
Total	807,094	791,850	1,541,263	59,150	694,280	3,893,635

Note: Data accuracy and completeness varied significantly in early censuses.

20th Century Shifts

The 20th century saw significant changes. The 1930 census controversially implemented the "one-drop rule" for classifying mixed-ancestry individuals as "Negro." The "Mexican" race category appeared briefly in 1930 but was removed by 1940, with individuals of Mexican descent classified as White. Post-WWII, efforts focused on improving data collection, leading to the 1970 census where self-identification became standard, a reform influenced by the Civil Rights Movement.

Data Usage and Policy

Census data on race and ethnicity are vital for federal programs. They inform efforts to promote equal employment opportunities, assess racial disparities in health and environmental risks, and ensure compliance with legislation like the Voting Rights Act and Civil Rights Act. This data also guides legislative redistricting and resource allocation for various social programs.

Contemporary Trends & Revisions

Multi-Racial Identification (2000)

The 2000 census marked a significant shift by allowing respondents to select multiple race categories. This change, reflecting increasing multiracial identification, meant data became less directly comparable to prior censuses. Nearly seven million Americans identified with two or more races in 2000.

MENA Category Discussions

Recognizing that many individuals of Middle Eastern or North African (MENA) descent do not perceive themselves as White, the OMB has considered adding a distinct MENA racial category. Proposed revisions in 2023-2024 aim to improve data collection for these growing populations, potentially impacting funding and representation.

2020 Census Refinements

The 2020 census continued the practice of separate race and ethnicity questions, adhering to 1997 OMB standards. Phrasing was refined for clarity, and specific instructions were added for write-in responses. Notably, the term "Negro" was removed, and the "Middle Eastern North African (MENA)" category was explicitly solicited via write-in responses for the White category, acknowledging evolving identities.

Data Accuracy & Challenges

Undercounts and Overcounts

The Census Bureau acknowledges that race and ethnicity data can have coverage errors. The 2020 census, impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, showed significant undercounts for Black, Hispanic/Latino, and American Indian/Alaska Native populations, particularly those living on reservations. Conversely, overcounts were noted for White and Asian populations.

Net coverage error percentages indicate the difference between the estimated population and the census count. Negative values represent undercounts, positive values represent overcounts.

Net Coverage Error by Race and Hispanic Origin (%)
Category	2010	2020	Significant Difference?
White alone	0.54*	0.66*	No
Non-Hispanic White alone	0.83*	1.64*	Yes
Black or African American	-2.06*	-3.30*	No
Asian	0.00	2.62*	Yes
American Indian or Alaska Native (Total)	-0.15	-0.91*	No
Some other race	-1.63*	-4.34*	Yes
Hispanic or Latino	-1.54*	-4.99*	Yes

* Statistically significant difference from zero.

Comparability Issues

Changes in question design, response options (e.g., allowing multiple selections), and data processing methods across censuses (especially between 1990 and 2000) complicate direct comparisons of racial and ethnic data over time. The Census Bureau advises caution when interpreting these trends.

OMB Standards Evolution

The OMB's standards for collecting and presenting race and ethnicity data have evolved significantly, driven by legal requirements (like civil rights enforcement) and societal changes. The ongoing review of these standards, including potential consolidation of race and ethnicity questions and the creation of a MENA category, highlights the dynamic nature of demographic classification.

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References

The figures for Massachusetts do not include the population of Maine. Though Maine was then a part of Massachusetts, the Maine figures were compiled separately, and are shown on the line for Maine.

Hephzibah V. Strmic-Paul, Brandon A. Jackson, and Steve Garner, "Race Counts: Racial and Ethnic Data on the U.S. Census and the Implications for Tracking Inequality," Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 4, no. 1 (2018): 1â13.

copy of the full 1930 census instructions https://www.census.gov/history/pdf/1930instructions.pdf

Patrick D. Lukens, A Quiet Victory for Latino Rights: FDR and the Controversy over Whiteness (University of Arizona Press, 2012)

The 1930 Census in Perspective, 1930census.com

Waite, Preston. US Census Bureau. "2010 Decennial Census Program." 2006. accessed July 7, 2008.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Race and ethnicity in the United States census Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This content has been generated by an AI model and is intended for educational and informational purposes only. It is based on data derived from publicly available sources, primarily Wikipedia. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the source material, the information may not be entirely comprehensive, up-to-date, or free from interpretation.

This is not official U.S. Census Bureau data or analysis. The information provided is not a substitute for professional demographic, sociological, or governmental consultation. Always refer to official government publications and consult qualified experts for definitive information and analysis.

The creators of this page are not liable for any errors, omissions, or actions taken based on the information presented herein.

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Definitions: Race vs. Ethnicity ❓

🏷️ Defining Categories

⚖️ Social Constructs, Not Biology

🌐 Hispanic/Latino Origin

Historical Evolution 📜

⏳ Early Censuses (1790-1890)

🔄 20th Century Shifts

📊 Data Usage and Policy

Contemporary Trends & Revisions ➡️

➕ Multi-Racial Identification (2000)

🌍 MENA Category Discussions

📝 2020 Census Refinements

Data Accuracy & Challenges ⚠️

📉 Undercounts and Overcounts

❓ Comparability Issues

🏛️ OMB Standards Evolution

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Definitions: Race vs. Ethnicity

Defining Categories

Social Constructs, Not Biology

Hispanic/Latino Origin

Historical Evolution

Early Censuses (1790-1890)

20th Century Shifts

Data Usage and Policy

Contemporary Trends & Revisions

Multi-Racial Identification (2000)

MENA Category Discussions

2020 Census Refinements

Data Accuracy & Challenges

Undercounts and Overcounts

Comparability Issues

OMB Standards Evolution

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice