What are the primary alternative names for red blood cells (RBCs) in academic and medical contexts?

Red blood cells (RBCs) are also known as erythrocytes, derived from Ancient Greek words for 'red' and 'hollow vessel,' with 'cyte' meaning cell in modern usage. They are also referred to as red cells, erythroid cells, and occasionally haematids.

What is the principal function of red blood cells in vertebrates?

The primary function of red blood cells is to deliver oxygen to the body's tissues via blood flow through the circulatory system. They achieve this by picking up oxygen in the lungs (or gills in fish) and releasing it as they pass through the body's capillaries.

What molecule within red blood cells is crucial for oxygen transport and gives blood its characteristic red color?

The cytoplasm of a red blood cell is rich in hemoglobin, an iron-containing biomolecule. Hemoglobin is responsible for binding oxygen molecules and is the reason for the red color of both the cells and the blood itself.

Approximately how many hemoglobin molecules are contained within a single human red blood cell?

Each human red blood cell contains a substantial amount of hemoglobin, approximately 270 million molecules. This high concentration of hemoglobin is essential for efficient oxygen transport.

What are the key properties of the red blood cell membrane that are vital for its function?

The red blood cell membrane is composed of proteins and lipids, providing essential properties like deformability and stability. These characteristics allow the cell to navigate the circulatory system, especially the narrow capillary networks, without rupturing.

Describe the typical shape and internal structure of mature human red blood cells.

Mature human red blood cells are flexible biconcave disks, meaning they are flattened with a depression in the center. Uniquely, they lack a cell nucleus and other organelles, which maximizes the internal space available for hemoglobin.

What is the rate of red blood cell production in adult humans?

In adult humans, approximately 2.4 million new red blood cells are produced every second. This continuous production ensures a constant supply of oxygen-carrying cells in the bloodstream.

What is the typical lifespan of a red blood cell, and how long does a single circulation cycle take?

Red blood cells circulate in the body for about 100 to 120 days before their components are recycled. A single complete circulation cycle, where the cell travels through the entire circulatory system, takes approximately 60 seconds or one minute.

What proportion of the total cells in the human body are red blood cells, and what percentage of blood volume do they occupy?

Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cell, making up nearly half of the blood's volume (40% to 45%). They constitute a significant portion of all cells in the human body, estimated at 20-30 trillion cells.

What are packed red blood cells?

Packed red blood cells are red blood cells that have been donated, processed, and stored in a blood bank. They are typically used for blood transfusions.

Which vertebrate species are known to lack red blood cells, and how do they manage oxygen transport?

The only known vertebrates without red blood cells are the crocodile icefish (family Channichthyidae). These fish live in very cold, oxygen-rich waters and transport oxygen dissolved freely in their blood plasma, as they lack hemoglobin.

How does hemoglobin facilitate oxygen transport in red blood cells?

Hemoglobin, a metalloprotein containing heme groups with iron atoms, binds temporarily to oxygen molecules in the lungs or gills. This binding allows for efficient uptake and transport of oxygen, which is then released throughout the body's tissues.

Besides oxygen, what else is transported by hemoglobin within red blood cells?

Hemoglobin within red blood cells also carries a portion of the waste product carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs. However, the majority of carbon dioxide is transported in the blood plasma as bicarbonate ions.

What causes the color change in blood depending on oxygenation levels?

The color of red blood cells changes based on the oxygenation state of their hemoglobin. When bound to oxygen, the resulting oxyhemoglobin appears scarlet, while the absence of oxygen results in deoxyhemoglobin, which is a dark red or burgundy color.

How does pulse oximetry measure arterial oxygen saturation?

Pulse oximetry utilizes the color difference between oxygenated (oxyhemoglobin) and deoxygenated (deoxyhemoglobin) blood. By employing colorimetric techniques, it can directly assess the oxygen saturation level in the arterial blood.

What is the evolutionary advantage of transporting oxygen via specialized cells like red blood cells?

Transporting oxygen within specialized cells like red blood cells offers evolutionary advantages by making the blood less viscous, allowing for higher oxygen concentrations, and improving the diffusion of oxygen from the blood to the tissues.

How does the size of red blood cells relate to capillary diameter, and what is the proposed benefit?

Red blood cells are typically about 25% larger than the diameter of capillaries. It has been hypothesized that this size difference enhances oxygen transfer from the red blood cells to the surrounding tissues.

What are some exceptions to the typical biconcave disk shape of mammalian red blood cells?

While most mammals have biconcave red blood cells, some artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates) exhibit diverse morphologies. For instance, llamas and camels have small, ovaloid cells, mouse deer have tiny spherical cells, and red deer and wapiti have cells that can assume various angular and crescentic shapes.

What is the significance of mammalian red blood cells extruding their nucleus during development?

Mammalian red blood cells extrude their nucleus and other organelles during maturation. This process creates more internal space, allowing the cell to carry a greater amount of hemoglobin for efficient oxygen transport.

What is the composition of the red blood cell membrane, and what are its main layers?

The red blood cell membrane is composed of three layers: the outer glycocalyx rich in carbohydrates, the lipid bilayer containing transmembrane proteins, and the inner membrane skeleton, a protein network. Lipids, primarily cholesterol and phospholipids, make up about half the membrane's mass, with the other half being proteins.

How are phospholipids asymmetrically distributed in the red blood cell membrane, and why is this important?

Phospholipids like phosphatidylcholine (PC) and sphingomyelin (SM) are found in the outer membrane monolayer, while phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylserine (PS) are primarily in the inner monolayer. This asymmetry is maintained by specific transport proteins (flippases, floppases, scramblases) and is crucial for cell integrity, preventing premature destruction by macrophages and ensuring proper blood flow.

What are lipid rafts in the context of red blood cell membranes, and what is their potential role?

Lipid rafts are specialized membrane structures enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids, associated with specific proteins. In red blood cells, they are thought to mediate signaling events, such as those involving beta-adrenergic receptors, and may influence the entry of malarial parasites.

What is the function of membrane skeleton proteins in red blood cells?

The proteins forming the membrane skeleton are responsible for the red blood cell's deformability, flexibility, and durability. They enable the cell to squeeze through capillaries that are narrower than its own diameter and to regain its shape afterward.

How do red blood cell membrane proteins contribute to blood groups and potential disorders?

Approximately 25 of the over 50 known membrane proteins carry blood group antigens, such as the A, B, and Rh antigens. Defects in these membrane proteins are associated with various inherited disorders, including hereditary spherocytosis and elliptocytosis.

What is the zeta potential of a red blood cell, and what molecule significantly contributes to it?

The zeta potential is an electrochemical property of the cell surface, indicating its net electrical charge. The normal zeta potential of a red blood cell is approximately -15.7 millivolts, largely due to the sialic acid residues present on the cell membrane.

What is the relationship between cellular respiration, oxygen, and carbon dioxide?

Cellular respiration consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide in roughly equal molecular amounts. This means the circulatory system's function is equally vital for transporting both oxygen to the tissues and carbon dioxide away from them.

What enzyme within red blood cells plays a critical role in the rapid conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid?

Red blood cells contain a high concentration of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase on their inner membrane. This enzyme acts as a catalyst, significantly speeding up the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid, which then dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.

How does the Bohr effect relate to carbon dioxide transport and oxygen release in red blood cells?

The hydrogen ions (H+) released during the rapid conversion of CO2 within red blood cells decrease the hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. This phenomenon, known as the Bohr effect, facilitates the release of oxygen to the tissues where it is most needed.

What is the Haldane effect, and how does it influence carbon dioxide transport?

The Haldane effect describes how the oxygen saturation level of hemoglobin affects its affinity for carbon dioxide. When hemoglobin releases oxygen in the tissues, it binds more readily to CO2, and conversely, when it binds oxygen in the lungs, it releases CO2.

What secondary functions do red blood cells perform beyond oxygen and carbon dioxide transport?

Red blood cells have secondary functions including releasing ATP when under shear stress to promote vessel dilation, releasing S-nitrosothiols when deoxygenated to dilate blood vessels, and producing hydrogen sulfide to relax vessel walls. They can also contribute to the immune response by releasing free radicals upon lysis by pathogens.

How do red blood cells generate energy without consuming the oxygen they transport?

Since mature red blood cells lack mitochondria, they produce energy (ATP) through glycolysis. This process involves breaking down glucose and fermenting the resulting pyruvate into lactic acid, thus not utilizing the transported oxygen.

Why are viruses unable to target mammalian red blood cells for replication?

Mature mammalian red blood cells lack DNA and RNA (though they contain some RNA) and cannot synthesize proteins. This absence of essential cellular machinery prevents viruses from replicating within them.

What is eryptosis, and what is its role in the life cycle of red blood cells?

Eryptosis is the programmed cell death of red blood cells. Aging red blood cells undergo changes that lead to their recognition and phagocytosis by macrophages in the spleen, liver, and lymph nodes, a process that balances the rate of new cell production.

What happens to the components of hemoglobin when red blood cells are broken down?

When red blood cells break down, the heme component of hemoglobin is converted into iron (Fe3+) and biliverdin. Biliverdin is then reduced to bilirubin, which is transported to the liver, while the iron is bound to transferrin and recirculated.

What are anemias, and what is the most common type?

Anemias are diseases characterized by a reduced capacity of the blood to transport oxygen, often due to a low red blood cell count or abnormalities in red blood cells or hemoglobin. The most common type is iron deficiency anemia, caused by insufficient iron intake or absorption.

What is pernicious anemia, and what vitamin is crucial for red blood cell production that is affected?

Pernicious anemia is an autoimmune disease where the body lacks intrinsic factor, which is necessary for absorbing vitamin B12. Vitamin B12 is essential for the production of red blood cells and hemoglobin.

What is sickle-cell disease, and how does it affect red blood cells?

Sickle-cell disease is a genetic disorder causing abnormal hemoglobin molecules. When these molecules release oxygen, they become insoluble and cause red blood cells to adopt a rigid, sickle shape, which can block blood vessels and damage organs.

What is thalassemia, and how does it differ from sickle-cell disease?

Thalassemia is a genetic disorder characterized by an abnormal ratio of hemoglobin subunits being produced. Unlike sickle-cell disease, which involves misshapen cells due to abnormal hemoglobin structure, thalassemia affects the quantity or balance of hemoglobin components.

What are hereditary spherocytosis syndromes?

Hereditary spherocytosis syndromes are a group of inherited disorders affecting the red blood cell membrane, causing the cells to become small, sphere-shaped, and fragile. These abnormal cells are typically destroyed by the spleen.

What is hemolysis, and what condition can it lead to?

Hemolysis is the general term for the excessive breakdown of red blood cells. This can occur for various reasons and may result in hemolytic anemia, a condition where the body cannot compensate for the rapid destruction of red blood cells.

How does malaria impact red blood cells?

The malaria parasite spends part of its life cycle within red blood cells, consuming their hemoglobin. The parasite eventually causes the red blood cells to rupture, leading to symptoms like fever.

What are polycythemias, and what is a potential consequence of this condition?

Polycythemias, also known as erythrocytoses, are conditions characterized by an excess number of red blood cells. The increased viscosity of the blood resulting from this surplus can lead to various symptoms and health issues.

What are schistocytes, and in what types of diseases are they observed?

Schistocytes are fragments of red blood cells, often observed in microangiopathic diseases such as disseminated intravascular coagulation and thrombotic microangiopathies. They are formed when fibrin strands within blood vessels shear red blood cells as they attempt to pass through thrombi.

What is the purpose of cross-matching before a blood transfusion?

Cross-matching is a procedure performed before a blood transfusion to test a small sample of the recipient's blood against the donated blood. This process helps minimize the risk of an acute hemolytic transfusion reaction by ensuring compatibility between donor and recipient.

What significant advancement was reported in 2008 regarding red blood cell production?

In 2008, scientists reported successfully coaxing human embryonic stem cells into becoming red blood cells in a laboratory setting. A key challenge overcome was inducing these cells to eject their nucleus, a step achieved by growing them on bone marrow stromal cells.

What is poikilocytosis, and how is it detected?

Poikilocytosis refers to variations in the shape of red blood cells. This condition is often diagnosed by examining a thin layer of blood on a microscope slide, known as a blood film or peripheral blood smear.

What is rouleaux formation, and under what conditions does it commonly occur?

Rouleaux formation is when red blood cells stack together, flat side to flat side. This phenomenon is observed more frequently when levels of certain serum proteins, such as those associated with inflammation, are elevated.

What is blood doping, and why is it considered dangerous?

Blood doping is a practice where athletes extract, store, and reinfuse their own red blood cells to increase oxygen-carrying capacity. It is dangerous because the resulting higher blood viscosity can strain the cardiovascular system, which is not adapted to handle such thick blood.

Who is credited with the first description of red blood cells, and when did this occur?

The first person to describe red blood cells was the Dutch biologist Jan Swammerdam in 1658. He observed them using an early microscope while studying the blood of a frog.

What discovery did Karl Landsteiner make in 1901 related to blood?

In 1901, Karl Landsteiner discovered the three main human blood groups: A, B, and C (later O). He identified these by observing the reactions that occurred when mixing different blood serums and red blood cells, establishing compatibility patterns.

What was discovered about Ötzi the Iceman's blood cells?

The oldest intact red blood cells ever found were discovered in Ötzi the Iceman, a natural mummy who died around 3255 BCE. These cells were identified in May 2012.

Red Blood Cell Wiki: The Crimson Current: An Exploration of Red Blood Cells

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Overview

Defining Erythrocytes

Red blood cells (RBCs), or erythrocytes, are the most prevalent type of blood cell and the principal mechanism by which vertebrates transport oxygen. They circulate via the blood system, delivering oxygen absorbed in the lungs (or gills in fish) to the body's tissues. Each RBC contains approximately 270 million hemoglobin molecules, the iron-containing protein responsible for oxygen binding and the characteristic red color of blood.

Cellular Characteristics

Mature mammalian RBCs are flexible, biconcave disks, lacking a nucleus and organelles to maximize internal space for hemoglobin. This unique structure facilitates efficient gas exchange and allows them to navigate the narrow capillary networks. Approximately 2.4 million new erythrocytes are produced every second in adult humans, with a circulating lifespan of about 100-120 days.

Blood Composition

Red blood cells constitute nearly half of the blood's volume (40-45% hematocrit). They are significantly more numerous than white blood cells and platelets, highlighting their critical role in oxygen delivery. The plasma membrane, composed of lipids and proteins, provides essential properties like deformability and stability for traversing the circulatory system.

Structure

Vertebrate Variations

While most vertebrates possess RBCs, there are notable differences. Mammalian RBCs are anucleated (lack a nucleus) when mature, unlike those of most other vertebrates. This enucleation maximizes hemoglobin capacity but limits cellular repair mechanisms. The crocodile icefish are a rare exception, lacking hemoglobin and transporting oxygen dissolved in their plasma.

Membrane Composition

The RBC membrane is a sophisticated structure comprising three layers: the external glycocalyx, the lipid bilayer, and the internal membrane skeleton. Roughly half the membrane's mass consists of proteins, crucial for functions like transport, cell adhesion, and maintaining the cell's characteristic shape and flexibility. Key lipids include cholesterol and phospholipids, arranged asymmetrically.

The lipid bilayer is primarily composed of cholesterol and phospholipids. This composition dictates membrane fluidity and permeability. Major phospholipids like phosphatidylcholine (PC) and sphingomyelin (SM) reside in the outer leaflet, while phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylserine (PS) are predominantly found in the inner leaflet. This asymmetry, maintained by specific transport proteins (flippases, floppases, scramblases), is vital for cell integrity, preventing premature destruction by macrophages (which recognize exposed PS) and ensuring proper flow through microvasculature.

Membrane Proteins

Numerous membrane proteins perform diverse roles. Approximately 25 proteins are associated with blood group antigens (e.g., ABO, Rh). Others function as transporters (e.g., Band 3 anion transporter, Aquaporin 1 water channel, Glut1 glucose transporter), cell adhesion molecules (e.g., ICAM-4, BCAM), or structural components. Defects in these proteins can lead to various inherited disorders like hereditary spherocytosis and elliptocytosis.

Transport: Band 3 (anion), Aquaporin 1 (water), Glut1 (glucose), RHAG (gas), Na+/K+-ATPase, Ca2+-ATPase.
Cell Adhesion: ICAM-4, BCAM (Lutheran blood group).
Structural Role: Proteins linking the lipid bilayer to the membrane skeleton (e.g., Band 3 complex, Protein 4.1R complex) maintain deformability and surface area.

Function

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport

The primary function is gas transport. Hemoglobin within RBCs binds oxygen in the lungs and releases it in tissues. RBCs also play a crucial role in CO2 transport. Most CO2 travels in plasma as bicarbonate (HCO3-), a process facilitated by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase abundant within RBCs. This reaction rapidly converts CO2 and water into carbonic acid, which dissociates into bicarbonate and H+. The H+ ions influence hemoglobin's oxygen affinity (Bohr effect). Additionally, CO2 binds directly to hemoglobin (forming carbaminohemoglobin), a process influenced by oxygen levels (Haldane effect).

Gas Exchange Dynamics

The rapid conversion of CO2 to bicarbonate within RBCs, catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase, is essential for efficient CO2 transport. Bicarbonate ions are exchanged for chloride ions (chloride shift) and transported in the plasma. In the lungs, the lower partial pressure of CO2 drives the reverse reaction, releasing CO2 for exhalation. This intricate buffering system maintains blood pH balance.

Secondary Roles

RBCs contribute to vascular regulation by releasing adenosine triphosphate (ATP) under shear stress, promoting vessel dilation. They also release S-nitrosothiols, which further aid vasodilation and direct blood flow to oxygen-depleted areas. Furthermore, RBCs can synthesize nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide, both signaling molecules involved in regulating vascular tone. They also participate in the immune response by releasing reactive oxygen species upon lysis, which can damage pathogens.

Life Cycle

Erythropoiesis

Red blood cell production, or erythropoiesis, begins in the bone marrow from precursor stem cells. This process takes approximately 7 days, culminating in mature, anucleated reticulocytes, which constitute about 1% of circulating RBCs. Hormone erythropoietin (EPO), primarily produced by the kidneys, stimulates this production, especially in response to low oxygen levels.

Circulatory Lifetime

Once released into circulation, RBCs typically function for 100-120 days (shorter in infants). They continuously circulate, navigating arteries, veins, and capillaries. Their unique deformability allows them to squeeze through capillaries narrower than their own diameter, ensuring efficient oxygen delivery.

Senescence and Recycling (Eryptosis)

Aging RBCs undergo changes (eryptosis) making them recognizable by macrophages in the spleen, liver, and lymph nodes. These macrophages phagocytose the old cells, preventing their premature lysis. The breakdown products, iron and biliverdin (reduced to bilirubin), are recycled or processed by the liver. This regulated removal maintains a stable circulating RBC count.

Clinical Significance

Anemias and Polycythemias

Disorders involving RBCs significantly impact health. Anemias are characterized by reduced oxygen-carrying capacity, often due to insufficient RBCs or abnormal hemoglobin (e.g., iron deficiency anemia, pernicious anemia, thalassemia, sickle cell disease). Conversely, polycythemias involve an excess of RBCs, increasing blood viscosity and potentially causing symptoms.

Diagnostic Tests

Evaluation of RBCs is fundamental in diagnostics. Key tests include the RBC count, hematocrit (Hct), and mean corpuscular volume (MCV). Microscopic examination of blood films (peripheral blood smears) reveals variations in shape (poikilocytosis) and size (anisocytosis), indicative of various conditions. Blood typing is crucial for transfusions.

RBC Count: Number of RBCs per unit volume of blood.
Hematocrit (Hct): Percentage of blood volume occupied by RBCs.
Hemoglobin (Hb) Levels: Measures the oxygen-carrying protein concentration.
Red Blood Cell Indices: MCV (mean cell volume), MCH (mean corpuscular hemoglobin), MCHC (mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration), RDW (red cell distribution width).
Peripheral Blood Smear: Microscopic examination for morphology (shape, size, color).
Reticulocyte Count: Percentage of immature RBCs, indicating bone marrow production rate.
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR): Non-specific marker of inflammation.
Blood Typing: Determination of ABO and Rh antigens for transfusion compatibility.

Transfusion and Doping

Packed red blood cells are administered via transfusion to treat anemia or blood loss, requiring careful cross-matching to prevent reactions. Blood doping, involving transfusion of one's own or another's RBCs to enhance oxygen capacity, is performance-enhancing but dangerous due to increased blood viscosity and is banned by sports authorities. Research into lab-grown RBCs offers future transfusion possibilities.

History

Early Observations

Red blood cells were first described by Jan Swammerdam in 1658 using an early microscope. Anton van Leeuwenhoek provided a more detailed description in 1674. Vincenzo Menghini demonstrated the presence of iron in RBCs in the 1740s.

Blood Groups and Hemoglobin

Karl Landsteiner's discovery of the ABO blood groups in 1901 revolutionized transfusion medicine. Max Perutz elucidated the structure of hemoglobin using X-ray crystallography in 1959, deepening the understanding of oxygen transport.

Ancient Discoveries

The oldest intact red blood cells ever found were identified in Ötzi the Iceman, dating back to approximately 3255 BCE, discovered in 2012.

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References

Erich Sackmann, Biological Membranes Architecture and Function., Handbook of Biological Physics, (ed. R.Lipowsky and E.Sackmann, vol.1, Elsevier, 1995

Iron Metabolism, University of Virginia Pathology. Accessed 22 September 2007.

Tokumasu F, Ostera GR, Amaratunga C, Fairhurst RM (2012) Modifications in erythrocyte membrane zeta potential by Plasmodium falciparum infection. Exp Parasitol

A full list of references for this article are available at the Red blood cell Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This content has been generated by an AI model and is intended for educational and informational purposes only. While based on authoritative sources, it may not be exhaustive or entirely up-to-date. The information provided does not constitute medical advice.

Consult Professionals: Always seek the advice of a qualified healthcare provider or medical professional for any health concerns or before making any decisions related to your health or treatment. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay seeking it due to information obtained from this resource.

The creators assume no responsibility for any errors, omissions, or actions taken based on the information presented herein.

The Crimson Current

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview ℹ️

🩸 Defining Erythrocytes

🔬 Cellular Characteristics

⚖️ Blood Composition

Structure 🏗️

🌍 Vertebrate Variations

🧬 Membrane Composition

⚙️ Membrane Proteins

Function ⚙️

💨 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport

↔️ Gas Exchange Dynamics

💡 Secondary Roles

Life Cycle ⏳

🌱 Erythropoiesis

🔄 Circulatory Lifetime

💀 Senescence and Recycling (Eryptosis)

Clinical Significance 🩺

📉 Anemias and Polycythemias

🔬 Diagnostic Tests

💉 Transfusion and Doping

History 📜

🔭 Early Observations

🩸 Blood Groups and Hemoglobin

🧊 Ancient Discoveries

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

Defining Erythrocytes

Cellular Characteristics

Blood Composition

Structure

Vertebrate Variations

Membrane Composition

Membrane Proteins

Function

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport

Gas Exchange Dynamics

Secondary Roles

Life Cycle

Erythropoiesis

Circulatory Lifetime

Senescence and Recycling (Eryptosis)

Clinical Significance

Anemias and Polycythemias

Diagnostic Tests

Transfusion and Doping

History

Early Observations

Blood Groups and Hemoglobin

Ancient Discoveries

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice