Echoes of Unity: Tracing the Restoration Movement's Journey
An academic exploration into the origins, principles, and evolving landscape of a pivotal Christian movement.
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Introduction
A Quest for Primitive Christianity
The Restoration Movement, also recognized as the American Restoration Movement or the Stone–Campbell Movement, emerged on the American frontier during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840) in the early 19th century. Its pioneers sought to reform the existing church structures and achieve the unification of all Christians into a single body, modeled after the early church depicted in the New Testament.
Two Convergent Streams
This movement developed from several independent religious revivals that shared an idealization of early Christianity. Two distinct groups, despite developing similar approaches independently, became particularly influential. The first, led by Barton W. Stone in Cane Ridge, Kentucky, identified simply as "Christians." The second, originating in western Pennsylvania and Virginia, was guided by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell, both educated in Scotland, and eventually adopted the name "Disciples of Christ."
Core Unifying Beliefs
Both the Stone and Campbell groups shared fundamental beliefs that facilitated their eventual union in 1832. These included the conviction that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; the practice of observing the Lord's Supper on the first day of each week; and the necessity of adult believer's baptism by immersion in water. A shared rejection of denominational labels, favoring biblical names for followers of Jesus, also underscored their common vision for a restored, unified church.
Guiding Principles
Unity in Christ
A foundational principle of the Restoration Movement is the belief that Christianity should not be divided, reflecting Jesus's intention for a singular church. This pursuit of unity led to a rejection of human-made creeds and ecclesiastical traditions, which were seen as sources of division rather than cohesion among believers.
Scripture Alone
The movement emphasized the Bible as the ultimate authority and source of truth, believing that Christians could achieve agreement by adhering solely to its teachings. Creeds were viewed as human expansions or constrictions of biblical truth, and thus divisive. Similarly, human-origin names for the church were eschewed in favor of biblical designations like "Christian Church" or "Church of Christ."
Defining Slogans
Several memorable slogans encapsulated the distinctive themes of the Restoration Movement:
- "Where the Scriptures speak, we speak; where the Scriptures are silent, we are silent."
- "The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one."
- "We are Christians only, but not the only Christians."
- "In essentials, unity; in opinions, liberty; in all things love."
- "No creed but Christ, no book but the Bible, no law but love, no name but the divine."
- "Do Bible things in Bible ways."
- "Call Bible things by Bible names."
Historical Context
Roots in Reformation Thought
The intellectual lineage of the Restoration Movement can be traced back to the Renaissance and Reformation. Early dissenters like John Wycliffe and Jan Hus advocated for a return to primitive Christianity. The Reformation's emphasis on "scripture alone" (sola scriptura), individual biblical interpretation, and the reduction of ritual in worship significantly influenced early Restoration Movement leaders. Figures like Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin further contributed to the idea of restoring biblical forms and patterns.
Enlightenment Rationalism
John Locke's rationalism provided another key influence. Reacting to deism, Locke sought a common ground for religious belief without abandoning scripture. He argued that essential Christian beliefs, such as the messiahship of Jesus and his direct commands, could be agreed upon by all, while other biblical teachings were non-essentials not worth fighting over. Unlike Locke, however, the Puritans and later the Restoration Movement explicitly called for a systematic restoration of the early church.
The Second Great Awakening
The ideal of restoring a "primitive" form of Christianity gained popularity in the U.S. after the American Revolution, particularly during the Second Great Awakening. This period saw the rise of various groups, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Baptists, and Shakers, all influenced by this restorationist desire. The Restoration Movement itself was deeply shaped by this awakening, especially its southern phase, which influenced the evangelistic techniques of both Stone and the Campbells.
The Stone Movement
Cane Ridge Revival & Springfield Presbytery
The Cane Ridge Revival in Kentucky in 1801 was a pivotal event, fostering a movement to disassociate from Christian denominationalism. In 1803, Barton W. Stone and others withdrew from the Kentucky Synod, forming the Springfield Presbytery. Their defining document, the 1804 Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery, declared their departure from Presbyterianism and their intention to be part of the broader Christian Church. They advocated for the unity of all followers of Jesus, congregational self-governance, and the Bible as the sole source of God's will, rejecting the Westminster Confession of Faith and adopting the name "Christian."
Christian Freedom & Primitive Living
Christian freedom was the cornerstone of the Stone movement, leading them to reject historical creeds, traditions, and theological systems in favor of a "primitive" Christianity based on the Bible. Their focus was initially more on holy and righteous living, reflecting the lifestyle of early church members, rather than strictly reconstructing the forms and structures. This emphasis on freedom meant the movement largely avoided dogma, form, or rigid structure, held together by a commitment to primitive Christianity.
Apocalyptic Millennialism
Millennialism was another significant theme. While many Americans hoped for a millennial age through national progress, the Stone movement believed only a unified Christianity, based on the apostolic church, could usher in the millennium. Stone's millennialism was more "apocalyptic" than Alexander Campbell's, rooted in the belief that human flaws prevented a millennial age through human effort alone. This worldview led many in the Stone movement to embrace pacifism, avoid civil government, and reject violence, militarism, greed, materialism, and slavery.
The Campbell Movement
Declaration and Address
The Campbell wing began with Thomas Campbell's 1809 publication, the Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington, following his suspension from the Presbyterian Synod. This document outlined his convictions about the church of Jesus Christ. He formed the Christian Association of Washington in Pennsylvania, not as a church, but as an association for faith growth. In 1811, it became the Brush Run Church, a congregationally governed body. Their study of the New Testament led them to practice baptism by immersion, prompting an invitation to join the Redstone Baptist Association, which they accepted on the condition of being allowed to preach and teach based solely on Scripture.
Alexander's Leadership & Journals
Thomas's son, Alexander Campbell, joined him in the U.S. in 1809 and soon took a leading role. He worked within the Redstone Baptist Association from 1815 to 1824, but his reformist views, promoted through his journal The Christian Baptist, caused friction with traditional Baptists. He later moved his membership to the Mahoning Baptist Association. Alexander used his journal to systematically and rationally reconstruct the apostolic Christian community, distinguishing between essential practices (congregational autonomy, plurality of elders, weekly communion, immersion for remission of sins) and non-essential ones (holy kiss, deaconesses, communal living, footwashing, charismatic exercises).
Enlightenment & Baconian Approach
The Campbell movement was significantly influenced by Enlightenment thinking, particularly John Locke and the Scottish School of Common Sense philosophers Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart. This led to a "Baconian" approach to biblical interpretation, treating the Bible as a source of concrete facts rather than abstract truths. Alexander believed that by limiting themselves to these biblical facts, Christians would inevitably reach agreement, providing a rational and scientific blueprint for the church. His millennialism was more optimistic, envisioning Christian unity transforming the world and initiating a millennial age before Christ's return, reflecting a progressive strand in his thought.
The Great Union
Bridging Differences
Despite their distinct characteristics—the Campbell movement's systematic reconstruction versus the Stone movement's radical freedom—both groups shared crucial common ground. They both viewed the restoration of apostolic Christianity as a means to hasten the millennium and achieve Christian freedom. This shared commitment to restoring the early church and uniting Christians provided sufficient motivation for a formal merger between many within the two movements.
A Handshake in Lexington
The Stone and Campbell movements officially merged in 1832 at the Hill Street Meeting House in Lexington, Kentucky. This historic event was symbolized by a handshake between Barton W. Stone and "Raccoon" John Smith, who served as the spokesman for the Campbell followers. This union, formalized after preliminary meetings in late 1831, was met with widespread enthusiasm, as many believed it held great promise for the future success and unity of the combined movement.
Naming the New Movement
The merger immediately raised the question of a suitable, non-sectarian name for the unified body. Stone preferred "Christians," citing its use in Acts 11:26, while Alexander Campbell advocated for "Disciples of Christ," considering it a more humble and ancient designation. Consequently, both names were used, leading to ongoing nomenclature confusion that persists to this day. Following 1832, the term "Reformation" became frequently used by leaders, with phrases like "religious reformation" and "the cause of reformation" reflecting their goals of Christian unity and restoring apostolic Christianity. The term "Restoration Movement" gained popularity by the late 19th century, inspired by Alexander Campbell's essays on "A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things."
United Movement (1832–1906)
Rapid Growth & Influence
The combined Restoration Movement experienced rapid growth from 1832 to 1906. By the 1906 U.S. Religious Census, it had become the 6th largest Christian group in the country. This period saw significant expansion, with membership growing from 22,000 in 1832 to over 1.1 million by 1906, demonstrating its profound impact on the American religious landscape.
The Power of Journals
Journals played a critical role in fostering the free exchange of ideas and maintaining dialogue within the movement. Alexander Campbell published The Christian Baptist and The Millennial Harbinger, while Stone published The Christian Messenger. These platforms routinely featured contributions from diverse viewpoints. After Campbell's death in 1866, prominent journals like The Christian Standard (edited by Isaac Errett) and The Christian Evangelist (edited by J.H. Garrison) continued to shape discussions. The Gospel Advocate, founded by Tolbert Fanning and later edited by David Lipscomb, focused on strict adherence to scripture, rejecting practices not explicitly allowed.
Controversies and Divisions
Despite the growth, internal controversies began to emerge. The Anabaptism and materialism debates involved figures like John Thomas, who challenged Campbell's views on baptism and introduced concepts like annihilationism, leading to his estrangement and the eventual formation of groups like the Christadelphians. The Missionary Society Controversy arose from the creation of the American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS) in 1849, with many opposing such para-church organizations as unauthorized by scripture and a threat to congregational autonomy. The "Louisville Plan" of 1869 attempted to reorganize the ACMS but ultimately failed due to continued opposition to centralized authority.
The Great Separation (1906)
Instrumental Music & Missionary Societies
Two highly visible issues fueled the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ): the use of musical instruments in worship and the role of missionary societies. While instrumental music was discussed as early as 1849, its acceptance grew after the Civil War, especially in urban Northern congregations. Opponents argued that the New Testament provided no authorization for instruments in worship, while supporters cited expediency and Christian liberty. Similarly, missionary societies were seen by some as unscriptural and a compromise to congregational autonomy, leading to growing hostility.
Biblical Interpretation & Cultural Tensions
Underlying these visible disputes were deeper differences in biblical interpretation. The Churches of Christ held that any practices not explicitly found in the New Testament were impermissible, whereas the Christian Churches adopted a more permissive view, allowing practices not expressly forbidden. The American Civil War further exacerbated cultural tensions, with Disciples congregations tending to be urban and Northern, favoring college-educated clergy and larger church buildings, while Churches of Christ were predominantly rural and Southern, discouraging formal theological education and preferring simpler structures.
Women's Leadership & Formal Recognition
The rise of women leaders in temperance and missionary movements, particularly in the North, also contributed to the division. Christian Churches increasingly supported women speaking publicly and even ordained women preachers, a practice largely discouraged by the Churches of Christ. The U.S. Census Bureau's religious census in 1906 formally recognized the division, listing "Churches of Christ" and "Disciples of Christ" as separate groups. This official recognition, prompted by observations of growing disunity and a letter from David Lipscomb, solidified a separation that had been developing for years.
Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)
Theological Liberalism & Open Membership
Following the 1906 separation, the Disciples of Christ continued to grapple with internal tensions, particularly regarding theological liberalism, the nascent ecumenical movement, and "open membership" (recognizing unimmersed individuals as full members). By the 1920s, many Disciples accepted historical criticism of the Bible, a departure from earlier views. These issues led to further polarization within the Christian Churches.
Organizational Restructure & Decline
The three missionary societies of the Disciples merged into the United Christian Missionary Society in 1920, and human service ministries expanded through the National Benevolent Association. However, by 1926, conservative congregations began to form the North American Christian Convention, signaling a growing split. In 1968, the Christian Churches favoring cooperative mission work adopted a new "provisional design," officially becoming the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). This formalized the separation from unaffiliated Christian Churches. The Disciples of Christ experienced a significant membership decline, peaking at nearly 2 million in 1958 but dropping below 1 million by 1993.
Unaffiliated Congregations
Distinctive Hermeneutics & Autonomy
The unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations developed as a distinct religious body from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). They share organizational and hermeneutic differences with the Churches of Christ, notably having a loosely organized convention and a more permissive view on scriptural silence. Despite these differences, their theology and ecclesiology are more closely aligned with the Churches of Christ than with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Many of these independent congregations are not only non-denominational but actively anti-denominational, adhering strictly to their Restoration roots.
Controversies and Formalization
The separation of these unaffiliated congregations was a lengthy process, rooted in three major early 20th-century controversies: the theological development of modernism and liberalism, the early ecumenical movement (leading to the Federal Council of Churches), and the practice of open membership. Congregations supporting one viewpoint tended to support the others. Disillusionment over the United Christian Missionary Society's support for missionaries advocating open membership led many congregations to withdraw. The North American Christian Convention, organized by conservative congregations in 1927, provided cohesion. The official separation is difficult to pinpoint, with suggestions ranging from 1926 to 1971, marked by events like the removal of independent churches from the Disciples Year Book.
Churches of Christ
Congregational Autonomy
Since the 1906 separation, Churches of Christ have maintained a steadfast commitment to purely congregational governance, rejecting any organizational structures above the local church level. They operate without central headquarters, councils, or denominational hierarchies. Instead, independent congregations form a network, participating voluntarily in various service and fellowship initiatives with other congregations. This structure is a direct reflection of their shared commitment to Restoration principles, focusing on "methods and procedures" for church organization and worship as found in the New Testament.
Internal Variations & "Non-Institutional" Groups
Despite a strong consensus on practice and theology among the "mainstream" (approximately three-quarters of congregations), variations exist due to their autonomous nature. Most divisions within Churches of Christ stem from "methodological" disputes, reflecting the seriousness with which they pursue restoring the primitive church. The largest of these distinct groups are the "non-institutional" Churches of Christ (around 2,055 congregations), which oppose congregational support for para-church institutions like orphanages and Bible colleges. Other smaller groups oppose separate Sunday school classes, the use of multiple communion cups ("one-cuppers"), or emphasize mutual edification by various leaders over a single preacher.
International Churches of Christ
The Discipling Movement
The International Churches of Christ (ICOC) originated from a "discipling" movement within the mainline Churches of Christ during the 1970s. This movement began with Chuck Lucas's campus ministry at the 14th Street Church of Christ in Gainesville, Florida (later Crossroads Church of Christ). Lucas initiated "Campus Advance," incorporating "soul talks" and "prayer partners"—practices involving in-depth personal guidance and accountability. Critics, however, accused Lucas of fostering cultism due to the intense involvement required.
Boston Movement & Formal Break
Kip McKean, a convert of Lucas, moved to Boston in 1979 and, through the Lexington Church of Christ (renamed Boston Church of Christ), became a prominent leader of this trend, which became known as the "Boston movement." This movement emphasized "redefining commitment to Christ" and rapidly expanded globally. By the early 1990s, some first-generation leaders became disillusioned and left. In 1993, the movement formally organized as the "International Churches of Christ," solidifying its separation from mainline Churches of Christ. By 1992, Time magazine recognized them as "one of the world's fastest-growing and most innovative bands of Bible thumpers," with a global empire of 103 congregations and 50,000 attendees.
Reunion Efforts
Restoration Forums & Dialogue
Despite the historical divisions, various efforts have been made to restore unity among the different branches of the Restoration Movement. In 1984, a "Restoration Summit" brought together representatives from the Churches of Christ and the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations. These meetings evolved into annual "Restoration Forums," discussing issues such as instrumental music, the nature of the church, and practical steps toward unity. In the early 21st century, efforts expanded to include representatives from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).
Stone-Campbell Dialogue & Centennial
The "Stone-Campbell Dialogue," a series of meetings beginning in 1999, included representatives from all three major U.S. branches of the Restoration Movement. Initially involving six representatives from each tradition, these meetings expanded in 2001 to include anyone interested. Special efforts were made in 2006, coinciding with the centennial anniversary of the official 1906 split, to foster intentional fellowship. For example, Abilene Christian University hosted the annual Restoration Unity Forum, featuring joint presentations by leaders from different branches, and forums that included apologies from both the Churches of Christ and the ICOC.
Global Reach
Great Britain & Europe
Restoration Movement churches are found worldwide. In Great Britain, a Church of Christ formed in Nottingham in 1836, leading to the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in 1842. By 1870, "Churches of Christ" was formally adopted as the name. Alexander Campbell's writings and a visit in 1847 significantly influenced the British movement. Unlike in the U.S., instrumental music was not a major source of division before WWI; pacifism was more contentious. Membership declined after WWI, and most association congregations united with the United Reformed Church in 1981, while others formed a Fellowship of Churches of Christ, developing ties with unaffiliated U.S. congregations.
Australia & Asia
In Australia, the movement's early development was more influenced by British Restoration Movement groups. Churches of Christ emerged independently in various locations. Debates over instrumental music, Christian Endeavor Societies, and Sunday schools occurred from 1875 to 1910, with all three eventually gaining general acceptance. The Restoration Movement in Australia is less divided than in the United States, maintaining strong ties with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) while also seeing conservative ministers and congregations associate with unaffiliated Christian Churches. India and the Philippines have also been significant targets for missionary efforts, with estimates of over 2,000 congregations and approximately 1,000,000 members in India alone.
Africa
Africa represents a significant area of growth for the Churches of Christ, with over 1 million members across approximately 14,000 congregations. The most substantial concentrations are found in countries such as Nigeria, Malawi, Ghana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, South Africa, and Kenya. These communities reflect the global reach and diverse expressions of the Restoration Movement's principles.
Notable Figures
Early Pioneers
- Barton W. Stone (1772–1841): A key leader of the "Christian" wing, instrumental in the Cane Ridge Revival and the Springfield Presbytery.
- Thomas Campbell (1763–1854): Co-founder of the "Disciples of Christ" wing, author of the Declaration and Address.
- Alexander Campbell (1788–1866): Son of Thomas Campbell, assumed a leading role in the movement, influential through his journals The Christian Baptist and The Millennial Harbinger.
- Walter Scott (1796–1861): An evangelist whose efforts rapidly expanded the Mahoning Baptist Association.
- "Raccoon" John Smith (1784–1868): Spokesman for the Campbell followers during the 1832 merger.
Influential Leaders
- James O'Kelly (1735–1826): Early advocate for unity through a return to early Christianity, founder of the "Republican Methodists" (later Christian Church).
- Elias Smith (1769–1846) & Abner Jones (1772–1841): Leaders of a New England movement with similar views to O'Kelly, emphasizing Christian scriptures over human traditions.
- Isaac Errett (1820–1888): Editor of The Christian Standard, a prominent journal post-Campbell.
- David Lipscomb (1831–1917): Editor of the Gospel Advocate, known for his strict adherence to scripture and opposition to instrumental music.
- L.L. Pinkerton (1807–1875): Sometimes labeled the first "liberal" of the movement, supported instrumental music, "open membership," and abolition.
Modern Figures & Impact
- James A. Garfield (1831–1881): The first Restoration Movement member elected U.S. President.
- Marshall Keeble (1878–1968): A successful preacher who bridged racial divides in the movement before the American Civil Rights Movement.
- Kip McKean (b. 1954): Key figure in the "Boston movement" and the formalization of the International Churches of Christ.
- Fred Craddock (1928–2009): Influential Disciples of Christ preacher and theologian.
- Sharon E. Watkins (b. 1955): First female General Minister and President of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).
Key Milestones
The Restoration Movement's journey is marked by significant events of formation, growth, and division. Below is a simplified timeline highlighting pivotal moments.
Movement Timeline
| Year | Event | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| 1792 | James O'Kelly forms "Republican Methodists" (later "Christian Church") | Early independent movement seeking unity and biblical adherence. |
| 1801 | Cane Ridge Revival | Catalyst for the Stone movement, fostering disassociation from denominationalism. |
| 1803 | Springfield Presbytery formed by Barton W. Stone | Formal withdrawal from Presbyterianism, emphasizing Christian freedom. |
| 1804 | Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery published | Key document of the Stone movement, rejecting creeds and adopting "Christian" name. |
| 1809 | Thomas Campbell publishes Declaration and Address | Foundational document of the Campbell movement, advocating for Christian unity and restoration. |
| 1810 | Loose association of "Christian" movements (O'Kelly, Smith/Jones, Stone) | Early cooperation among independent restorationist groups. |
| 1811 | Christian Association of Washington becomes Brush Run Church | Formal establishment of a congregationally governed church in the Campbell movement. |
| 1815 | Brush Run Church joins Redstone Baptist Association | Initial period of cooperation and shared practices with Baptists. |
| 1824 | Alexander Campbell moves to Mahoning Baptist Association | Shift in affiliation due to growing differences with Redstone Baptists. |
| 1827 | Walter Scott appointed evangelist for Mahoning Association | Accelerated growth and new evangelistic approaches within the Campbell movement. |
| 1830 | Mahoning Baptist Association disbands; Alexander Campbell starts Millennial Harbinger | Further separation from Baptist structures, new influential publication. |
| 1832 | Merger of Stone and Campbell movements | Formal union of the two major streams, forming the broader Restoration Movement. |
| 1849 | First national convention; American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS) formed | Introduction of centralized missionary organizations, sparking controversy. |
| 1860s | First documented use of musical instruments in worship (e.g., Midway, KY) | Beginning of a major controversy that would lead to later divisions. |
| 1863 | ACMS takes a stand favoring the Union during the Civil War | Exacerbated cultural and theological tensions within the movement. |
| 1864 | John Thomas coins "Christadelphian" name | Formalization of a separate group with roots in the Restoration Movement but distinct theological views. |
| 1869 | "Louisville Plan" adopted to reorganize ACMS | Attempt to address concerns over missionary society structure, ultimately failed. |
| 1874 | Christian Woman's Board of Missions (CWBM) formed | Increased role of women in missionary efforts, contributing to later tensions. |
| 1906 | U.S. Census Bureau lists "Churches of Christ" and "Disciples of Christ" separately | Formal recognition of a division that had been growing for decades. |
| 1917 | International Convention of Christian Churches reorganized | Further organizational developments within the Disciples' wing. |
| 1919 | United Christian Missionary Society formed | Merger of missionary societies within the Disciples, a point of contention for conservatives. |
| 1925-1926 | Controversies over open membership at conventions | Led to withdrawal of many conservative congregations from the missionary society. |
| 1927 | North American Christian Convention (NACC) organized | Formation of a distinct gathering for more conservative, unaffiliated Christian Churches. |
| 1931 | Christian Connection merges with Congregational Churches | Further evolution of one of the early independent streams. |
| 1957 | Congregational Christian Church merges with Evangelical and Reformed Church to form United Church of Christ | Another significant merger in the broader Protestant landscape. |
| 1968 | Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) adopts "provisional design" | Formalizes the denominational structure of the Disciples, completing a long separation. |
| 1971 | Unaffiliated Christian Churches/Churches of Christ listed separately in Yearbook of American Churches | Official recognition of the independent Christian Churches as a distinct body. |
| 1984 | "Restoration Summit" held | Early efforts to foster unity between Churches of Christ and unaffiliated Christian Churches. |
| 1993 | International Churches of Christ (ICOC) formalize split | Official separation of the "Boston movement" from mainline Churches of Christ. |
| 1995 | Disciple Heritage Fellowship established | Conservative movement within the Disciples of Christ seeking renewal. |
| 1999 | "Stone-Campbell Dialogue" begins | Initiative for dialogue and unity among all three major U.S. branches. |
| 2006 | Centennial of 1906 split marked by unity efforts | Increased focus on reconciliation and dialogue across the movement's branches. |
Notable Figures
Early Pioneers
- Barton W. Stone (1772–1841): A key leader of the "Christian" wing, instrumental in the Cane Ridge Revival and the Springfield Presbytery.
- Thomas Campbell (1763–1854): Co-founder of the "Disciples of Christ" wing, author of the Declaration and Address.
- Alexander Campbell (1788–1866): Son of Thomas Campbell, assumed a leading role in the movement, influential through his journals The Christian Baptist and The Millennial Harbinger.
- Walter Scott (1796–1861): An evangelist whose efforts rapidly expanded the Mahoning Baptist Association.
- "Raccoon" John Smith (1784–1868): Spokesman for the Campbell followers during the 1832 merger.
Influential Leaders
- James O'Kelly (1735–1826): Early advocate for unity through a return to early Christianity, founder of the "Republican Methodists" (later Christian Church).
- Elias Smith (1769–1846) & Abner Jones (1772–1841): Leaders of a New England movement with similar views to O'Kelly, emphasizing Christian scriptures over human traditions.
- Isaac Errett (1820–1888): Editor of The Christian Standard, a prominent journal post-Campbell.
- David Lipscomb (1831–1917): Editor of the Gospel Advocate, known for his strict adherence to scripture and opposition to instrumental music.
- L.L. Pinkerton (1807–1875): Sometimes labeled the first "liberal" of the movement, supported instrumental music, "open membership," and abolition.
Modern Figures & Impact
- James A. Garfield (1831–1881): The first Restoration Movement member elected U.S. President.
- Marshall Keeble (1878–1968): A successful preacher who bridged racial divides in the movement before the American Civil Rights Movement.
- Kip McKean (b. 1954): Key figure in the "Boston movement" and the formalization of the International Churches of Christ.
- Fred Craddock (1928–2009): Influential Disciples of Christ preacher and theologian.
- Sharon E. Watkins (b. 1955): First female General Minister and President of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).
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References
References
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 551, 'Names of the Movement'.
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 551, 'Names of the Movement'
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 755, 'Unity, Christian'.
- Foster et al. 2004, pp. 252â54, 'Creeds and Confessions'.
- The Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod, 'Restoration Movement: History, Beliefs, and Practices', p. 2
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 190, Christian Connection.
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 368, 'Great Awakenings'.
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 368, 'Great Awakenings'
- Davis, M. M. (1915). How the Disciples Began and Grew, A Short History of the Christian Church, Cincinnati: The Standard Publishing Company
- Foster et al. 2004, pp. xxi, xxxvii, 'Stone-Campbell History Over Three Centuries: A Survey and Analysis', 'Introductory Chronology'.
- Foster et al. 2004, p. xxxvii, 'Introductory Chronology'
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 190, 'Christian Connection'
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 191, 'Christian Connection'
- Foster et al. 2004, pp. 543â44, "Moore, William Thomas".
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 361, Gospel Advocate.
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 361, Gospel Advocate
- Foster et al. 2004, pp. 361â62, Gospel Advocate
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 362, Gospel Advocate
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 597, 'Pinkerton, Lewis Letig'
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 77, 'Bible, Authority and Inspiration of the'
- Foster et al. 2004, p. 576, 'Open Membership'.
- Zuber, Glenn (2004). "Temperance", The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement, edited by Douglas A. Foster, Paul Blowers, and D. Newell Williams. Grand Rapids, Eerdmans Publishing, 728â729.
- Zuber, Glenn (1993). "The Gospel of Temperance: Early Disciple Women Preachers and the WCTU," Discipliana, 53 (47â60).
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