What is sandalwood, and what are its distinguishing characteristics?

Sandalwood refers to a category of woods derived from trees belonging to the genus *Santalum*. These woods are notably heavy, yellow, and possess a fine grain. Unlike many other fragrant woods, sandalwood is distinctive for retaining its fragrance for many decades, and sandalwood oil is extracted from these woods.

What is the etymological origin of the term 'sandalwood'?

The term 'sandalwood' is ultimately derived from the Sanskrit word *Chandana* (candana), which means 'wood for burning incense'. This Sanskrit term is related to *candrah*, meaning 'shining, glowing', and the Latin *candere*, also meaning 'to shine or glow'. The word entered English in the 14th or 15th century via Late Greek, Medieval Latin, and Old French.

What botanical characteristics define true sandalwood trees?

True sandalwood trees are classified as medium-sized hemiparasitic trees, meaning they obtain some nutrients from other plants. They belong to the same botanical family as European mistletoe.

Where are true sandalwoods naturally native?

True sandalwoods are native to specific regions including Insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands.

Which is the primary cultivated species of sandalwood, and where was it introduced?

The main cultivated species is *Santalum album*, which was introduced into mainland Asia in ancient times by Austronesian traders. It has since naturalized in South Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, southeastern China, and Taiwan.

What are the main geographical regions where both wild and introduced sandalwood trees are distributed?

The primary distribution areas for both wild and introduced sandalwood trees are the drier tropical regions of India and the Indonesian islands of Timor and Sumba.

How did *Santalum album* spread to various regions historically?

*Santalum album* spread to other regions through significant historical trade networks, including the Austronesian maritime trade network, the incense trade route, and the Maritime Silk Road, continuing until the sixteenth century CE.

Which regions primarily supplied sandalwood for consumption in East and West Asia during the incense trade route era?

During the time of the incense trade route, the sandalwood produced in peninsular India and the Malay Archipelago supported most of the consumption in East Asia and West Asia.

How does *Santalum album* compare to *Santalum spicatum* in terms of quality and market presence?

*Santalum album* is still considered to possess the best and original quality, particularly in religious and alternative medicine contexts. However, *Santalum spicatum* (Australian sandalwood) is widely marketed today due to its stable sources, despite *S. album* being traditionally superior.

What is the conservation status of *Santalum album*, and where is it native?

*Santalum album* is a threatened species native to the dry tropical regions of Indonesia (specifically Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands), the Philippines, and Western Australia.

When and how was *Santalum album* introduced to South Asia?

*Santalum album* was introduced by Austronesian sailors to East Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, and South Asia during the ancient spice trade, becoming naturalized in South India by at least 1300 BCE.

Which Indian states are the principal tracts for sandalwood trees?

In India, the principal sandalwood tracts are found in most parts of Karnataka and the adjoining districts of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh.

What challenges does sandalwood harvesting face in India, Pakistan, and Nepal?

Despite sandalwood trees in India, Pakistan, and Nepal being government-owned and their harvest controlled, many trees are illegally cut down, contributing to conservation challenges.

What was the price of sandalwood oil by 2017?

By 2017, sandalwood oil prices had escalated to US$3,000 per liter, which translates to US$792 per U.S. gallon or US$660 per imperial gallon.

Which Hawaiian sandalwood species were historically exploited, and what is their current status?

The Hawaiian sandalwood species *S. ellipticum*, *S. freycinetianum*, and *S. paniculatum* (known as ʻiliahi) were heavily exploited between 1790 and 1825, leading to a depletion of their supply. While *S. freycinetianum* and *S. paniculatum* are relatively common today, they have not recovered their former abundance or size, and *S. ellipticum* remains rare.

What are the primary uses of *Santalum spicatum* (Australian sandalwood)?

*Santalum spicatum* is utilized by aromatherapists and perfumers. By 2011, a significant portion of its production was also directed to the chewing tobacco industry in India, making it the largest market for both Australian and Indian sandalwood oils in 2012.

What was the historical significance of sandalwood as an export for Western Australia?

In the 1840s, sandalwood was Western Australia's largest export earner. Although production of Australian sandalwood oil was intermittent by the turn of the 20th century, it experienced a revival in the late 1990s, peaking at over 20,000 kg (44,100 lb) per year by 2009, with much of it going to European fragrance industries.

Can other plants be referred to as 'sandalwood' even if they are not true *Santalum* species?

Yes, various unrelated plants with scented wood are also referred to as 'sandalwood,' even though they do not belong to the true sandalwood genus *Santalum*. Examples include *Adenanthera pavonina* (red or false red sandalwood) and *Baphia nitida* (African sandalwood).

What is the minimum age for *Santalum album* trees to produce commercially valuable sandalwood oil?

To produce commercially valuable sandalwood with high levels of fragrance oils, *Santalum album* trees need to be a minimum of 15 years old, though the precise yield, quality, and volume are still being studied.

Which country is currently the largest producer of *Santalum album*?

Australia is currently the largest producer of *Santalum album*, with the majority grown around Kununurra in the far north of Western Australia by companies like Quintis (formerly Tropical Forestry Services) and Santanol.

Why has India's position as the world's biggest sandalwood producer declined?

India, which was once the world's biggest producer of sandalwood, has been overtaken by Australia in the 21st century, partly due to over-exploitation of its sandalwood resources.

How is sandalwood typically harvested to maximize profit?

To maximize profit, sandalwood is harvested by removing the entire tree, rather than just felling it at the trunk near ground level. This method allows wood from the stump and root, which contains high levels of sandalwood oil, to also be processed and sold.

How do the prices of Australian and Indian sandalwood oil compare?

As of 2020, Australian sandalwood oil sold for approximately US$1,500 per kilogram (US$3,307 per lb). Indian sandalwood oil, which has a higher alpha-santalol content, was priced higher at about US$2,500 per kilogram (US$5,512 per lb).

What was the historical significance of sandalwood in the political economy of the Pacific prior to colonization?

Prior to colonization in the Pacific region, the sandalwood tree served as a significant marker of status, rank, and beauty within local societies.

How did sandalwood become an important part of Pacific trade during the colonial period?

During the colonial period, sandalwood became a crucial component of Pacific trade because it was one of the few resources that Western traders could successfully exchange with Chinese merchants, leading to increased pressure on its production.

What caused the collapse of sandalwood resources in Tonga?

In Tonga, the sandalwood tree, locally known as *'ahi*, experienced a collapse due to the disruption of *fahu*, a traditional hierarchical kinship-based social system that governed its harvest. As sandalwood gained market value, lower-ranking family members began harvesting trees without permission, prompting many farmers to defensively harvest their own trees, which resulted in widespread overharvesting and depletion of nearly all resources within two years.

What were the conclusions of Mike Evans' 2007 report on Tongan sandalwood overharvest?

In his 2007 scholarly report, Mike Evans concluded that while enforcing privatized land tenure might offer short-term ecological benefits, private property has the potential to fragment both social ties and regional ecology by allowing individuals to deny others access to resources.

Describe the distinctive scent profile of sandalwood oil.

Sandalwood oil possesses a distinctive soft, warm, smooth, creamy, and milky precious-wood scent, with its quality and scent profile significantly influenced by the age of the tree, its location, and the distiller's skill.

What role does sandalwood oil play in perfumery?

In perfumery, sandalwood oil provides a long-lasting, woody base for oriental, woody, fougère, and chypre fragrance families. When used in smaller quantities, it acts as a fixative, enhancing the longevity of more volatile components in a perfume. It is also a key ingredient in 'floriental' fragrances, blending well with white florals and other woody scents like patchouli and cedar.

Why is there a demand for alternative 'sandalwood' sources in the cosmetic industry?

In India's cosmetic industry, where sandalwood oil is widely used, the main source, *S. album*, is a protected species, and its demand cannot be fully met. This situation leads traders to accept oils from closely related species or even unrelated plants, which are often marketed as 'sandalwood' alternatives.

What is Isobornyl cyclohexanol?

Isobornyl cyclohexanol is a synthetic fragrance chemical that is produced and used as an alternative to natural sandalwood oil.

What are the main chemical components of sandalwood, and what are some of its common uses?

The main chemical components of sandalwood are the two isomers of santalol, which constitute about 75% of its composition. It is commonly used in aromatherapy, scented candles, and for preparing soaps.

What traditional use does sandalwood have in Hindu culture regarding statues?

Sandalwood is traditionally a preferred wood for carving statues and sculptures of Hindu gods because of its suitability for carving.

How is sandalwood oil utilized in microscopy?

Due to its low fluorescence and optimal refractive index, sandalwood oil is frequently employed as an immersion oil in ultraviolet and fluorescence microscopy.

What parts of local sandalwoods, such as quandong, are consumed by Aboriginal Australians?

Aboriginal Australians consume the seed kernels, nuts, and fruit of local sandalwood species, such as the quandong (*S. acuminatum*).

How did early Europeans in Australia use quandong in cooking?

Early Europeans in Australia used quandong by infusing its leaves into damper and by making jams, pies, and chutneys from its fruit.

In Scandinavia, how is red sandalwood bark used in food preparation?

In Scandinavia, pulverized bark from red sandalwood (*Pterocarpus soyauxii*) is used along with other tropical spices to marinate anchovies and certain types of pickled herring, such as *matjes* and sprat, imparting a reddish color and a slightly perfumed flavor.

What are modern culinary applications for sandalwood nuts and oil?

Present-day chefs are experimenting with sandalwood nuts as a substitute for macadamia nuts or as a bush food alternative to almonds and hazelnuts in Southeast Asian-styled cuisine. The oil is also used as a flavor component in various food items, including candy, ice cream, baked goods, puddings, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, and gelatin, typically at levels below 10 ppm.

What is the most common method for extracting oil from sandalwood, and how does it work?

Steam distillation is the most common method for extracting oil from sandalwood. This four-step process involves heating water to high temperatures (60–100 °C or 140–212 °F) and passing the resulting steam through the wood. The high heat releases the oil, which is tightly bound within the wood's cellular structure. The mixture of steam and oil is then cooled and separated to collect the essential oil.

How long does steam distillation of sandalwood oil typically take?

The steam distillation process for sandalwood oil is considerably longer than for most other essential oils, typically taking between 14 to 36 hours to complete, but it generally yields a much higher quality oil.

Why is water or hydro distillation less commonly used for sandalwood oil extraction today?

Water, or hydro, distillation, which involves soaking the wood in water and then boiling it to release the oil, is less commonly used today due to the high costs and time associated with heating large quantities of water.

What is the significance of sandalwood in Hinduism, and what is its Sanskrit name?

In Hinduism, sandalwood is considered sacred and is known in Sanskrit as *chandana*. It is used for worshipping deities, and it is believed that Lakshmi, the goddess of well-being, resides in the sandalwood tree, earning it the name *Srigandha*.

How is sandalwood paste prepared and used in Hindu rituals?

Sandalwood paste is prepared by grinding a piece of dry sandalwood against a stone slab with the gradual addition of water, forming a thick paste called *kalabham* (in Malayalam) or *gandha* (in Kannada). This paste is then mixed with saffron or other pigments to create *chandanam*, which, when further combined with herbs, perfumes, and other compounds, results in *javadhu*. These pastes and their dried powder forms are integral to rituals, ceremonies, decorating sacred images, and are believed to calm the mind during meditation and prayer. Devotees apply it to their foreheads, necks, and chests.

What role does sandalwood play in Jainism?

Sandalwood is an integral part of daily Jain practices. Sandalwood paste mixed with saffron is used to worship the Tirthankaras, and sandalwood powder is showered as blessings by Jain monks and nuns onto their disciples. Sandalwood garlands are also used in Jain cremation ceremonies.

How is sandalwood used during the Mahamastakabhisheka festival in Jainism?

During the Mahamastakabhisheka festival, held every 12 years, the Gommateshwara statue is bathed and anointed with various libations, including milk, sugarcane juice, and saffron paste, and then sprinkled with powders of sandalwood, turmeric, and vermilion.

What is the spiritual significance of sandalwood in some Buddhist traditions?

In some Buddhist traditions, sandalwood is associated with the *padma* (lotus) group and attributed to Amitabha Buddha. Its scent is believed to help transform desires and maintain a person's alertness during meditation. It is also a popular incense offering to the Buddha and gurus.

How is sandalwood used in Indian variants of Sufism?

In Indian variants of Sufism, disciples apply sandalwood paste to the graves of revered Sufi saints as a mark of devotion. This tradition is particularly observed by devotees in the Indian Subcontinent and in Tamil culture, irrespective of religious identity.

What is the role of sandalwood in East Asian religions?

In East Asia, sandalwood (檀木) is the most commonly used incense material by Chinese, Korean, and Japanese practitioners in worship and various ceremonies. In Korean Shamanism, sandalwood is considered the Tree of Life. Its use was transmitted to China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan during the eastward expansion of Buddhism.

Are there any exceptions to sandalwood use in East Asian religions?

Yes, some Taoist sects, following the Ming Dynasty Taoist Manual, avoid the use of sandalwood, as well as benzoin resin and frankincense, as incense in worship.

Sandalwood Wiki: Sandalwood: An Olfactory and Cultural Legacy

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What is Sandalwood?

A Prized Aromatic Wood

Sandalwood refers to a distinct class of woods derived from trees within the genus Santalum. These woods are characterized by their substantial weight, yellowish hue, and fine grain. Uniquely among aromatic woods, sandalwood retains its captivating fragrance for many decades, a property that has made it highly sought after across centuries. The valuable sandalwood oil, a key product, is meticulously extracted from these woods.

One of the World's Most Expensive Woods

Consistently ranked among the most expensive woods globally, alongside species like African blackwood, pink ivory, agarwood, and ebony, sandalwood's high value is a testament to its unique properties and cultural significance. This considerable demand, coupled with the slow growth rate of these trees, has unfortunately led to historical over-harvesting of certain species, posing significant conservation challenges.

Nomenclature

Etymological Roots

The name "sandalwood" and the taxonomy of the genus Santalum are deeply rooted in the species' extensive historical and global usage. The term ultimately originates from the Sanskrit word Chandana (चन्दन), which translates to "wood for burning incense." This term is further connected to candrah, meaning "shining, glowing," and the Latin candere, also signifying "to shine or glow."

Journey to English

The word "sandalwood" made its way into the English language during the 14th or 15th century, having traversed through Late Greek, Medieval Latin, and Old French. This linguistic journey reflects the long-standing global trade and cultural exchange associated with this precious wood, highlighting its enduring presence across diverse civilizations and historical periods.

True Sandalwood Species

Botanical Characteristics

True sandalwoods are medium-sized, hemiparasitic trees, meaning they obtain some of their nutrients by attaching to the roots of other plants. They belong to the same botanical family as the European mistletoe. These species are indigenous to Insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands.

Santalum album (Indian Sandalwood)

A threatened species native to dry tropical regions of Indonesia (Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands), the Philippines, and Western Australia.
Introduced to East Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, and South Asia by Austronesian sailors during the ancient spice trade, becoming naturalized in South India by at least 1300 BCE.
In India, principal sandal tracts are found in Karnataka and adjoining districts of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh.
Despite government ownership and harvest control in India, Pakistan, and Nepal, illegal logging remains a significant issue.
Sandalwood oil prices reached US$3,000 per liter by 2017, reflecting its high demand and scarcity.
Still considered to possess the best and original quality, especially for religious and alternative medicine applications.

Pacific & Australian Varieties

Beyond S. album, several other species within the Santalum genus are recognized for their fragrant wood, each with its own history and commercial significance.

Hawaiian Sandalwood ('iliahi)
- Includes S. ellipticum, S. freycinetianum, and S. paniculatum.
- Highly valued and exploited between 1790 and 1825, leading to depletion.
- While S. freycinetianum and S. paniculatum are relatively common today, they have not regained their former abundance or size, and S. ellipticum remains rare.
- A fourth species, S. haleakalae, is found only in subalpine areas and was never commercially exported.
Santalum yasi
- A distinct sandalwood species native to Fiji and Tonga.
Santalum spicatum (Australian Sandalwood)
- Widely utilized by aromatherapists and perfumers, though its oil concentration differs from other Santalum species.
- Historically, it was Western Australia's largest export earner in the 1840s.
- Production of Australian sandalwood oil saw a revival in the late 1990s, peaking at over 20,000 kg per year by 2009, with much going to European fragrance industries.
- By 2011, a significant portion was directed to the chewing tobacco industry in India, which remains a major market for both Indian and Australian sandalwood oils.

Unrelated "Sandalwoods"

It is important to distinguish true sandalwoods from various unrelated plants whose scented woods are also commercially referred to as "sandalwood." These species, while aromatic, do not belong to the Santalum genus and often lack the enduring fragrance of true sandalwood.

Examples of unrelated plants marketed as "sandalwood" include:

Adenanthera pavonina (sandalwood tree, red or false red sandalwood)
Baphia nitida (camwood, African sandalwood)
Eremophila mitchellii (sandalwood; false sandalwood, sandalbox)
Myoporum platycarpum (sandalwood; false sandalwood)
Myoporum sandwicense (bastard sandalwood, false sandalwood)
Osyris lanceolata (African sandalwood)
Osyris tenuifolia (East African sandalwood)
Pterocarpus santalinus (false red sandalwood, growing in southern Indian regions)

Critical Note: Most woods from these alternative sources tend to lose their aroma within a few months or years, unlike the decades-long fragrance retention of true Santalum species.

Production & Economics

Maturation and Yield

To produce commercially valuable sandalwood with high concentrations of fragrant oils, Santalum album trees must reach a minimum age of 15 years. The precise yield, quality, and volume of oil are still subjects of ongoing research. Generally, older trees are observed to yield higher oil content and superior quality. India continues to be a producer of high-quality Santalum album, with ethical plantations increasing and expected to significantly boost supply by 2030.

Global Production Landscape

Historically, India was the world's largest producer of sandalwood, but over-exploitation led to a decline in the 21st century. Australia has since surpassed India, becoming the largest producer of S. album, with the majority cultivated in plantations around Kununurra, Western Australia. As of 2017, Quintis (formerly Tropical Forestry Services) controlled approximately 80% of the global Indian sandalwood supply. Western Australia also boasts the world's largest plantation resource for Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum) in its wheatbelt region.

Harvesting and Valuation

Sandalwood's high market value dictates specific harvesting practices. To maximize profit, the entire tree, including the stump and root, is removed rather than merely felling at ground level. This is because the stump and root contain high levels of the prized sandalwood oil. Australian sandalwood is typically sold in log form, graded by heartwood content, and uniquely, its white sapwood does not require removal before oil distillation. In contrast, Indian sandalwood, primarily used for oil extraction, necessitates sapwood removal prior to distillation.

As of 2020, the market prices for sandalwood oils reflected their distinct chemical compositions and perceived quality:

Australian Sandalwood Oil (S. spicatum): Approximately US$1,500 per kilogram (US$3,307 per lb).
Indian Sandalwood Oil (S. album): Priced at about US$2,500 per kilogram (US$5,512 per lb), primarily due to its higher alpha-santalol content, which contributes to its superior fragrance profile.

Socio-Environmental Impact

Sandalwood has played a significant role in the political economy of the Pacific, serving as a marker of status and a crucial trade commodity during the colonial period. However, this commercialization often led to unsustainable practices. In Tonga, for instance, the traditional kinship-based social system (fahu) that regulated 'ahi (sandalwood) harvest was disrupted. As sandalwood became a valuable market commodity, lower-ranking family members began harvesting without permission, prompting defensive harvesting by many farmers, which ultimately led to severe overharvesting and depletion of nearly all sandalwood resources within two years. This highlights the complex interplay between resource commodification, land tenure, and ecological fragmentation.

Diverse Applications

Fragrance & Perfumery

Sandalwood oil is renowned for its distinctive soft, warm, smooth, creamy, and milky precious-wood scent. Its quality and aromatic profile are significantly influenced by the tree's age, geographical location, and the distiller's expertise. In perfumery, it provides a long-lasting, woody base for oriental, woody, fougère, and chypre fragrance families. When used in smaller proportions, it acts as a fixative, extending the longevity of more volatile components. It is also a key ingredient in "floriental" fragrances, blending harmoniously with white florals like jasmine, ylang-ylang, and gardenia, and complements other woody scents such as patchouli and cedar.

Cosmetic Industry: Sandalwood oil is extensively used in the Indian cosmetic industry.
Supply Challenges: Due to S. album being a protected species, demand often outstrips supply, leading to the trade of oils from closely related species or even unrelated plants like West Indian sandalwood (Amyris balsamifera) or bastard sandalwood (Myoporum sandwicense). However, these alternatives typically lose their aroma much faster.
Synthetic Alternatives: Isobornyl cyclohexanol is a synthetic fragrance chemical developed as an alternative to natural sandalwood oil.
Key Components: The main aromatic components of sandalwood are the two isomers of santalol, which constitute about 75% of the oil.
Other Uses: Beyond fine perfumes, sandalwood oil is utilized in aromatherapy, scented candles, and soap production.

Idols & Sculptures

The fine grain and workability of sandalwood make it an excellent medium for carving. Traditionally, it has been a preferred wood for creating intricate statues and sculptures of Hindu deities, embodying both artistic expression and spiritual reverence.

Technological Applications

Sandalwood oil possesses unique optical properties, specifically low fluorescence and an optimal refractive index. These characteristics make it a valuable immersion oil in advanced microscopy techniques, particularly in ultraviolet and fluorescence microscopy, where it aids in enhancing image clarity and resolution.

Culinary Uses

Sandalwood, in various forms, has found its way into culinary traditions across different cultures.

Aboriginal Australia: Indigenous Australians traditionally consume the seed kernels, nuts, and fruit of local sandalwoods, such as the quandong (Santalum acuminatum).
Early European Settlers in Australia: Used quandong in cooking damper by infusing it with leaves, and prepared jams, pies, and chutneys from its fruit.
Scandinavia: Pulverized bark from red sandalwood (Pterocarpus soyauxii), an unrelated species, is used with other tropical spices to marinate anchovies and certain types of pickled herring (e.g., matjes, sprat, traditional spegesild), imparting a reddish color and a subtly perfumed flavor.
Modern Gastronomy: Contemporary chefs are experimenting with sandalwood nuts as a substitute for macadamia nuts or as a "bush food" alternative to almonds and hazelnuts in Southeast Asian-inspired cuisine.
Flavoring Agent: Sandalwood oil is also employed as a flavor component in a variety of food items, including candies, ice cream, baked goods, puddings, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, and gelatin. Its use is typically at very low concentrations, below 10 ppm, with a maximum permissible level of 90 ppm in food products.

Oil Distillation

Extraction Methods

The extraction of essential oil from sandalwood employs several methods, each with distinct characteristics. These include steam distillation, water distillation, CO₂ extraction, and various solvent extractions. Among these, steam distillation is the most prevalent method utilized by commercial sandalwood producers, favored for its efficiency and quality output.

The Steam Distillation Process

Steam distillation is a meticulous four-step process: boiling, steaming, condensation, and separation. Water is heated to high temperatures (60–100 °C or 140–212 °F), and the resulting steam is passed through the sandalwood. The high heat of the steam effectively releases the oil, which is tightly bound within the wood's cellular structure. The mixture of steam and oil is then cooled, allowing the essential oil to separate and be collected. This process is notably longer than for most other essential oils, typically requiring 14 to 36 hours to complete, but it generally yields a superior quality oil.

Traditional Water Distillation

Water, or hydro, distillation represents a more traditional approach to sandalwood oil extraction. This method involves soaking the wood in water and then boiling the mixture until the oil is released. While historically significant, this technique is less commonly used today due to the substantial costs and time associated with heating large volumes of water, making it less commercially viable compared to modern steam distillation.

Spiritual Significance

Hinduism

In Hinduism, sandalwood, known as chandana in Sanskrit, holds profound sacred significance within Ayurvedic traditions. It is believed that Lakshmi (Sri), the goddess of well-being, resides in the sandalwood tree, hence its alternative name, Srigandha. Sandalwood paste, prepared by grinding dry sandalwood with water, is central to rituals. This paste, called kalabham in Malayalam and gandha in Kannada, is often mixed with saffron or other pigments to create chandanam. Further blending with herbs and perfumes yields javadhu. These pastes and their dried powder forms are widely used in India and Nepal.

Sacred Application: In Tirupati, sandalwood paste is applied to the skin after religious tonsure for protection.
Divine Connection: In Hindu and Vedic societies, sandalwood is thought to facilitate a closer connection to the divine, making it a highly revered element.
Ceremonial Use: The paste is integral to various rituals and ceremonies, used for crafting religious utensils, adorning sacred images, and is believed to induce mental tranquility during meditation and prayer.
Devotional Practice: It is also distributed to devotees, who apply it to their foreheads, necks, or chests as a mark of spiritual devotion. Sandalwood paste is a staple for most pujas in both temples and private homes.

Jainism & Buddhism

Sandalwood plays an integral role in the daily practices of Jainism and holds significant mention in Buddhist traditions.

Jainism

Worship: Sandalwood paste, often mixed with saffron, is used in the worship of the Tirthankaras.
Blessings: Jain monks and nuns (sadhus and sadhvis) shower sandalwood powder as blessings upon their disciples and followers.
Cremation: Sandalwood garlands are used to adorn the body during Jain cremation ceremonies.
Mahamastakabhisheka: During this festival, held every 12 years, the Gommateshwara statue is ritually bathed and anointed with various libations, including sandalwood paste, and sprinkled with sandalwood powder.

Buddhism

Pāli Canon: Sandalwood is referenced in several suttas of the Pāli Canon.
Symbolism: In some Buddhist traditions, sandalwood is associated with the padma (lotus) group and attributed to Amitabha Buddha.
Meditation Aid: Its scent is believed to aid in transforming desires and maintaining alertness during meditation.
Offerings: It is one of the most popular scents used when offering incense to the Buddha and spiritual gurus.

Sufism & East Asian Religions

Sandalwood's spiritual resonance extends to Sufism and various East Asian religious practices, underscoring its widespread cultural and devotional importance.

Sufism

Devotional Mark: In Indian variants of Sufism, disciples apply sandalwood paste to the graves of revered Sufi saints as a profound mark of devotion. This tradition is particularly observed by devotees in the Indian Subcontinent.
Tamil Culture: In Tamil culture, regardless of religious identity, sandalwood paste or powder is applied to Sufi saints' graves as a gesture of devotion and respect.

East Asian Religions

Incense: In East Asia, sandalwood (檀木) is the most commonly used incense material by Chinese, Korean, and Japanese practitioners in worship and various ceremonies.
Taoist Exceptions: Some Taoist sects, adhering to the Ming Dynasty Taoist Manual, refrain from using sandalwood (along with benzoin resin and frankincense) as incense in worship.
Korean Shamanism: In Korean Shamanism, sandalwood is revered as the "Tree of Life."
Buddhist Transmission: Its use was transmitted to China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan during the eastward expansion of Buddhism.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrians incorporate sandalwood into their religious ceremonies, particularly in fire temples. They offer sandalwood twigs to the afarganyu, the urn where the sacred fire is maintained in the fire temple (known as agiyari in Gujarati and dar-e mehr in Persian), to sustain the eternal flame during religious rites. After the firekeeping priests conclude the ceremony, attendees are permitted to place their own pieces of sandalwood into the fire.

Sacred Fire: Fire is a sacred symbol in Zoroastrianism, and maintaining constantly burning fires in temples is of paramount importance. Sandalwood, due to its high sensitivity to fire, serves this purpose exceptionally well.
Scriptural Endorsement: The sacred texts, Yasna and Yashts, accept sandalwood as an appropriate fuel for the holy fire.
Grades of Fire: It is offered to all three grades of fire within the fire temple, including the Atash Dadgahs. However, sandalwood is not offered to the divo, a smaller lamp kept in Zoroastrian homes.
Offerings: Often, money is offered to the mobad (priest) alongside sandalwood. Sandalwood is referred to as sukhad within the Zoroastrian community. It is sometimes more expensive to purchase at a fire temple than at a Zoroastrian store, serving as a revenue source for the temple.

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arbutus unedo

References

Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer (1990). Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Rock, J. F. (1913). The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu.

Asian Regional Workshop (1998). Santalum album. 2006. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. www.iucnredlist.org. Retrieved on 2007-02-08.

Jan Selling (2008): SÃ¥ lÃ¤nge skutan kan gÃ¥, p.120 (in Swedish)

A full list of references for this article are available at the Sandalwood Wikipedia page

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Sandalwood: An Olfactory and Cultural Legacy

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

What is Sandalwood? 🌳

📦 A Prized Aromatic Wood

💰 One of the World's Most Expensive Woods

Nomenclature 📜

🌍 Etymological Roots

🕰️ Journey to English

True Sandalwood Species 🌿

🧬 Botanical Characteristics

Santalum album (Indian Sandalwood)

🏝️ Pacific & Australian Varieties

Hawaiian Sandalwood ('iliahi)

Santalum yasi

Santalum spicatum (Australian Sandalwood)

🚫 Unrelated "Sandalwoods"

Production & Economics 📈

⏳ Maturation and Yield

🌎 Global Production Landscape

💲 Harvesting and Valuation

📉 Socio-Environmental Impact

Diverse Applications ✨

👃 Fragrance & Perfumery

🗿 Idols & Sculptures

🔬 Technological Applications

🍽️ Culinary Uses

Oil Distillation 🧪

💧 Extraction Methods

♨️ The Steam Distillation Process

🏺 Traditional Water Distillation

Spiritual Significance 🙏

🕉️ Hinduism

☸️ Jainism & Buddhism

Jainism

Buddhism

🕌 Sufism & East Asian Religions

Sufism

East Asian Religions

🔥 Zoroastrianism

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References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is Sandalwood?

A Prized Aromatic Wood

One of the World's Most Expensive Woods

Nomenclature

Etymological Roots

Journey to English

True Sandalwood Species

Botanical Characteristics

Pacific & Australian Varieties

Unrelated "Sandalwoods"

Production & Economics

Maturation and Yield

Global Production Landscape

Harvesting and Valuation

Socio-Environmental Impact

Diverse Applications

Fragrance & Perfumery

Idols & Sculptures

Technological Applications

Culinary Uses

Oil Distillation

Extraction Methods

The Steam Distillation Process

Traditional Water Distillation

Spiritual Significance

Hinduism

Jainism & Buddhism

Sufism & East Asian Religions

Zoroastrianism

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice