What is the fundamental definition of a scorched-earth policy?

A scorched-earth policy is a military strategy where an army destroys anything that could be useful to an enemy force. This includes destroying resources like water, food, animals, plants, tools, and infrastructure to weaken or deny them to the opposing side.

What are the two primary contexts in which a scorched-earth policy is employed by armies?

A scorched-earth policy can be used by a retreating army to leave nothing of value for the advancing enemy, or by an advancing army as a tactic against unconventional warfare.

What international agreement prohibits scorched-earth tactics against non-combatants?

The 1977 Geneva Conventions, specifically Additional Protocol II, prohibits attacking, destroying, removing, or rendering useless objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population, such as food, livestock, and water installations, for the purpose of denying them to the civilian population or the adverse Party.

When and where was the term 'scorched earth' first found in English reports related to its military application?

The term 'scorched earth' was first found in English in a 1937 report concerning the Second Sino-Japanese War. During this conflict, retreating Chinese forces destroyed crops and infrastructure to hinder the logistics of the advancing Japanese army.

How did Carl von Clausewitz describe the strategic objective related to denying enemy subsistence?

Clausewitz wrote that in both defensive and offensive warfare, a primary aim is the destruction of the enemy army, either through battle or by making their subsistence extremely difficult. This disorganization and hardship can force a retreat, leading to significant enemy losses, as exemplified by Wellington's campaign in 1810-1811.

What did Clausewitz observe about the conditions faced by a pursuing army when a scorched-earth policy was implemented?

Clausewitz noted that when a retreating army employs scorched-earth tactics, the pursuing army often faces pressing wants from the very first day. This is because the retreating forces consume or destroy everything, leaving behind wasted villages, fields, empty wells, and muddy streams.

How did the Scythians employ scorched-earth tactics against Darius the Great's invasion?

During Darius the Great's European Scythian campaign, the nomadic Scythians evaded the Persian invaders by retreating into the steppes. They simultaneously destroyed food supplies and poisoned wells to deny resources to the Persian army.

What did Xenophon record about enemy tactics during the March of the Ten Thousand?

Xenophon, in his work 'Anabasis', recorded that the withdrawing enemy forces burned crops and destroyed anything else of use in front of the Ten Thousand. This was a tactic to deny resources to the advancing Greek soldiers.

How was scorched earth used during the Second Punic War in Italy?

During Hannibal's invasion of Italy, both Carthaginian and Roman forces selectively used scorched-earth methods. After the Battle of Lake Trasimene, Quintus Fabius Maximus ordered the inhabitants in the path of Hannibal's army to burn their houses and grain.

What action did the Roman Senate take regarding Carthage after the Third Punic War?

Following the Third Punic War in 146 BCE, the Roman Senate ordered the permanent destruction of Carthage. Its buildings were demolished, stones scattered, and fields burned, though the story of salting the earth is considered apocryphal.

What was the 'vastatio' during the Gallic Wars?

During the Gallic Wars, 'vastatio' referred to the system of punitive destruction of property and subjugation of people that accompanied military campaigns. For instance, the Helvetii destroyed everything they couldn't carry to add incentive to their march, and Vercingetorix's forces ravaged the countryside to hinder Roman armies.

How did the Roman Emperor Julian's invasion of Persia in 363 CE face a scorched-earth policy?

The Persian region between the Tigris River and the mountains of Media, which was well-cultivated, was devastated by a scorched-earth policy. On the approach of Julian's Roman army, the inhabitants drove away cattle, burned crops, and destroyed resources, leaving a 'smoking and naked desert' that severely hampered the Roman advance.

What scorched-earth actions were taken during the First Fitna in the 7th century CE?

During the First Fitna (656–661 CE), Muawiyah I dispatched forces, including Busr ibn Abi Artat, to ravage territory loyal to Ali ibn Abi Talib in the Hejaz and Yemen. Tabari estimates 30,000 civilians were killed, and Sufyan ibn Awf burned crops and homes of Ali's supporters in Iraq.

How did the Mercians counter Hastein's Viking invasion in England in 893 CE?

When the Viking chieftain Hastein attempted to occupy Chester and raid Mercia, the Mercians responded by destroying all crops and livestock in the surrounding countryside. This action successfully expelled the Vikings.

What was the 'Harrying of the North' and its impact?

The Harrying of the North, initiated by William the Conqueror in 1069 to quell a rebellion, involved the brutal destruction of villages and slaughter of inhabitants across northern England. Food stores and livestock were annihilated, leading to widespread starvation and, in some accounts, cannibalism among survivors. The region took centuries to recover, with an estimated 100,000 to 150,000 deaths.

How was scorched earth utilized during the Hundred Years' War?

During the Hundred Years' War, both English and French forces conducted 'chevauchée' raids, a form of scorched-earth tactic, across enemy territory. The objective was to damage infrastructure and deny resources to the opposing side.

What scorched-earth strategy did Robert the Bruce advocate for Scotland?

According to a 14th-century poem, Robert the Bruce advised a scorched-earth strategy to thwart Edward I of England's invasion of Scotland. The plan involved burning the plains and keeping supplies in fortified places to create a wasteland that would impede the invading army.

What is 'slighting' in the context of fortifications, and when was it used?

Slighting is the deliberate destruction, partial or complete, of a fortification. It was used during the Wars of Scottish Independence and the English Civil War to render structures unusable as fortresses. Robert the Bruce, for example, slighted Scottish castles to prevent English occupation.

How did Stephen the Great employ scorched earth against the Ottoman Army?

Stephen the Great utilized scorched-earth tactics in the Carpathians against the Ottoman Army in 1475 and 1476. This strategy aimed to deny resources and hinder the advance of the invading Ottoman forces.

Describe Vlad the Impaler's scorched-earth tactics against Mehmed II in 1462.

When Mehmed II invaded Wallachia in 1462, Vlad the Impaler employed scorched-earth tactics. As he retreated, he destroyed resources and famously presented Mehmed's approaching army with a 'forest' of over 20,000 impaled bodies, a horrifying sight that contributed to Mehmed's withdrawal.

How were scorched-earth policies used during the Anglicisation of Ireland in the 16th century?

In 16th century Ireland, English commanders like Walter Devereux and Richard Bingham employed scorched-earth policies, particularly during the Desmond Rebellions. Much of Munster was laid waste, leading to extreme hardship and depopulation, as vividly described by Edmund Spenser.

What scorched-earth measures were taken during the Great Siege of Malta in 1565?

During the Great Siege of Malta, Grandmaster Jean Parisot de Valette ordered the harvesting of all crops, including unripe grain, to deprive the attacking Ottomans of local food supplies. Additionally, the Knights poisoned wells with bitter herbs and dead animals.

What scorched-earth actions did Torquato Conti order during the Thirty Years' War?

In 1630, during the Thirty Years' War, Imperial General Torquato Conti, retreating from the Swedish army, ordered his troops to burn houses, destroy villages, and generally harm property and people. This was done to deny resources to the Swedes and leave ruins behind.

What was the French scorched-earth policy in the Palatinate during the Nine Years' War?

In 1688, Louis XIV and Marquis de Louvois implemented a scorched-earth policy in the Palatinate, Baden, and Württemberg during the Nine Years' War. French troops systematically destroyed over 20 towns and numerous villages, including Heidelberg and Mannheim, to deny resources to German allies and prevent invasion of France.

How did Shivaji Maharaj's forces utilize scorched-earth tactics in the Mughal–Maratha Wars?

Shivaji Maharaj introduced scorched-earth tactics known as 'Ganimi Kava'. His forces looted Mughal traders and burnt cities, but were strictly ordered not to harm civilians or disrespect religious sites. His son, Sambhaji Maharaj, also employed these tactics.

What was the scorched-earth strategy used by Peter the Great during the Great Northern War?

During the Great Northern War, Peter the Great's forces employed scorched-earth tactics to impede Charles XII's campaign towards Moscow in 1707-1708. This involved destroying resources and infrastructure to deny sustenance to the Swedish army.

How did the Sullivan Expedition utilize scorched earth during the American Revolutionary War?

In 1779, General John Sullivan led the Sullivan Expedition against the Iroquois nations, employing a scorched-earth campaign. His troops destroyed over 40 Iroquois villages and their winter crop stores, leading to significant starvation and deaths among the Iroquois population that following winter.

What scorched-earth plan did Toussaint Louverture outline for the Haitian Revolution?

Toussaint Louverture outlined a scorched-earth plan for the Haitian Revolution, instructing his forces to destroy everything that could provide sustenance to the French. He advocated for tearing up roads, throwing corpses into foundations, and burning everything to show the French the 'hell which they deserve'.

How did the Portuguese population employ scorched earth during the Napoleonic invasion of Portugal in 1810?

During the third Napoleonic invasion of Portugal, the Portuguese population, retreating towards Lisbon, was ordered to destroy all food supplies, forage, and shelter. This action, driven by resentment from previous French plundering, created a 'scorched earth' belt across the country, significantly weakening the French army.

How did Russia's scorched-earth policy contribute to Napoleon's defeat in 1812?

In 1812, Emperor Alexander I utilized a scorched-earth policy during Napoleon's invasion of Russia. As Russian forces retreated, they burned the countryside and allegedly Moscow, leaving nothing for the Grande Armée to live off. This, combined with supply issues along the depleted route, led to the disastrous retreat of Napoleon's forces.

What was Manuel Belgrano's scorched-earth policy during the Jujuy Exodus in the South American War of Independence?

Manuel Belgrano led the Jujuy Exodus in 1812, ordering the forced displacement of people and the destruction of houses, crops, food stocks, and iron objects. This strict scorched-earth policy aimed to deprive the Royalist army of resources, creating a wasteland for them to advance into.

How did Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt employ scorched earth during the Greek War of Independence?

In 1827, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt launched a scorched-earth campaign in the Peloponnese against Greek revolutionaries. In response to guerrilla attacks, his forces burned villages and fields, threatening the population with starvation and deporting civilians, which contributed to European intervention.

What role did scorched earth play in the American Civil War, particularly with Generals Sheridan and Sherman?

Union Generals Philip Sheridan and William Tecumseh Sherman widely employed scorched-earth policies during the American Civil War. Sherman viewed supplies within Confederate reach as contraband, destroying them to hasten the war's end, while Sheridan applied similar tactics in the Shenandoah Valley and against Native Americans on the Great Plains.

What was General Thomas Ewing Jr.'s General Order No. 11 during the American Civil War?

In response to Quantrill's raid on Lawrence, Kansas, Brigadier General Thomas Ewing Jr. issued General Order No. 11 in 1863. This order mandated the near-total evacuation of three-and-a-half counties in western Missouri, which were subsequently looted and burned by US Army troops.

How did Confederate forces use scorched earth when retreating from Richmond, Virginia, in 1865?

As Ulysses S. Grant's forces broke through Richmond's defenses, Confederate President Jefferson Davis ordered the destruction of military supplies. The resulting fires spread to buildings and Confederate warships, forcing civilians to flee the burning city.

Describe Kit Carson's scorched-earth policy against the Navajo people.

Under James Henry Carleton's direction, Kit Carson instituted a scorched-earth policy against the Navajo people in the American West. This involved burning fields and homes and destroying livestock, forcing the Navajo to surrender due to lack of resources. The Navajo were then subjected to the 'Long Walk' to Fort Sumner, New Mexico.

What scorched-earth tactics did the British employ during the Second Boer War?

During the Second Boer War, British forces under Lord Kitchener implemented a scorched-earth policy in the occupied Boer republics. Farms and homes of civilians were destroyed to deny food and supplies to Boer guerrillas, while Boer non-combatants were interned in concentration camps.

What was the outcome for Boer civilians interned in concentration camps during the Second Boer War?

Boer civilians, primarily women and children, were interned in concentration camps during the Second Boer War. Due to infectious diseases, poor planning, lack of supplies, and overcrowding, a significant number died. Historian P. L. A. Goldman estimated that 27,927 Boers died in these camps.

How were scorched-earth tactics used in the New Zealand Wars?

In 1868, during the New Zealand Wars, the Tūhoe people, who had sheltered the Māori leader Te Kooti, were subjected to a scorched-earth policy. Their crops and buildings were destroyed, and those of fighting age were captured.

How did the Imperial Russian Army employ scorched earth on the Eastern Front in World War I?

On the Eastern Front of World War I, the Imperial Russian Army implemented a massive scorched-earth strategy during their retreat from the German army in 1915. Russian troops destroyed crops, houses, railways, and cities, and forcibly removed large populations to deny resources to the advancing Germans.

What scorched-earth action did the British take regarding Romanian oil fields in World War I?

In late 1916, the British army set fire to the Romanian oil fields to prevent them from falling into the hands of the Central Powers. Approximately 800 million liters of oil were burned.

What was Operation Alberich during World War I on the Western Front?

Operation Alberich, conducted by the German army on February 24, 1917, was a strategic scorched-earth withdrawal from the Somme battlefield to the Hindenburg Line. This move shortened the defensive line, but the static nature of the Western Front limited the policy's effectiveness.

How was scorched earth used in the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)?

During the Greco-Turkish War, the retreating Greek Army carried out a scorched-earth policy while fleeing Anatolia. Historian Sydney Nettleton Fisher noted that the Greek army committed 'every known outrage against defenceless Turkish villagers,' making the retreat more devastating than the occupation.

What was the 'Three Alls Policy' employed by the Imperial Japanese Army in the Second Sino-Japanese War?

The 'Three Alls Policy' was a scorched-earth strategy used by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It involved 'killing all, burning all, looting all,' causing immense environmental and infrastructure damage, and contributing to the destruction of villages and cities.

How did Chinese forces use scorched earth during the Second Sino-Japanese War?

Chinese Nationalist forces destroyed dams and levees in an attempt to flood land and slow the Japanese advance. This tactic resulted in the 1938 Yellow River flood. Additionally, during the 1938 Changsha fire, Nationalist forces burned the city to prevent resources from falling into Japanese hands.

What scorched-earth tactics did the Finns use during the Winter War?

At the start of the Winter War in 1939, Finnish forces employed scorched-earth tactics near the border. They destroyed provisions and shelter to deny resources to the invading Soviet Red Army, with some soldiers even burning their own homes and villages, such as Suomussalmi.

How did German forces implement scorched earth in the Soviet Union during World War II?

During Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa), Soviet district governments initiated partial scorched-earth policies, destroying electrical, telecommunications, rail, and industrial resources. Later, German forces, such as Army Group North and Army Group Don, also employed scorched-earth tactics, stealing crops, destroying farms, and razing settlements to slow pursuing Soviet forces.

What was the 'Nero Decree' ordered by Adolf Hitler in 1945?

The Nero Decree was an order by Adolf Hitler in 1945 for Albert Speer, his minister of armaments, to carry out a nationwide scorched-earth policy. Speer actively resisted this order, managing to prevent the destruction of German industry and infrastructure.

How was the 'railroad plough' used in World War II?

The railroad plough was utilized in Germany, Czechoslovakia, and other countries during World War II. It was employed during retreats to partially destroy railways, thereby denying their use to enemy forces.

What scorched-earth actions were taken during the Indonesian National Revolution?

During the Indonesian National Revolution, Indonesian military and pro-Indonesia militias used scorched-earth tactics. In Bandung in March 1946, the southern part of the city was deliberately burned down in defiance as Indonesian fighters left the city, an event known as the 'Bandung Sea of Fire'.

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Definition

Military Strategy

A scorched-earth policy is a military strategy involving the deliberate destruction of resources and infrastructure that might be useful to an enemy. This includes the systematic elimination of food, water sources, transportation networks, and anything else that could sustain an opposing force or population.

Objectives

The primary objectives are to deny the enemy the ability to wage war by crippling their logistics and resources, or to punish populations perceived as hostile. It can be employed by a retreating force to leave nothing of value behind, or by an advancing force to counter unconventional warfare.

Legal Context

While historically employed, the deliberate targeting of civilian resources and populations through scorched-earth tactics is now prohibited under international humanitarian law, specifically the 1977 Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions. This prohibits actions intended to starve civilians or deny them sustenance value.

Origins of the Term

Early Mentions

The term "scorched earth" gained traction in English during the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937. Chinese forces employed these tactics, destroying crops and infrastructure to impede the advancing Japanese military.

Ancient Precedents

The practice itself is ancient. Notable historical examples include the Scythians' use of scorched earth against Darius the Great's invading forces in the 6th century BCE, involving the destruction of food supplies and poisoning of wells. Xenophon also documented similar tactics during the March of the Ten Thousand in the 4th century BCE.

Roman and Medieval Use

During the Second Punic War (218–202 BCE), Roman forces under Fabius Maximus instructed civilians to burn their homes and grain to deny resources to Hannibal's army. Later, the destruction of Carthage in 146 BCE involved leveling buildings and burning fields. Medieval conflicts, such as the Wars of Scottish Independence and the Harrying of the North by William the Conqueror, also saw widespread application of these destructive strategies.

Military Theory

Clausewitz's Perspective

Military theorists like Carl von Clausewitz recognized the strategic value of denying resources to the enemy. In his work "On War," he noted that rendering subsistence difficult could disorganize the enemy army and force a disadvantageous retreat, citing Wellington's campaign in Portugal as an example.

Impact on Logistics

Scorched earth directly targets an army's logistical capabilities. By destroying food, water, and shelter, it forces the enemy to rely solely on their own supply lines, which can be stretched thin and become vulnerable. This tactic aims to degrade the enemy's fighting capacity through attrition and deprivation.

Psychological Warfare

Beyond material destruction, scorched earth serves as a potent psychological weapon. The sight of devastated landscapes and the knowledge of deliberate destruction can demoralize enemy combatants and civilian populations, signaling a ruthless determination to win at any cost.

Legal Framework

Geneva Conventions

International humanitarian law, particularly the 1977 Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions, explicitly prohibits scorched-earth tactics when they target objects indispensable for the survival of the civilian population. This includes foodstuffs, water installations, and agricultural areas.

Prohibitions

Article 54 of Protocol I prohibits attacks on objects indispensable for the survival of the civilian population, such as foodstuffs, crops, livestock, drinking water installations, and irrigation works, if the purpose is to deny their sustenance value to the civilian population or the adverse Party. This directly addresses the core intent of many scorched-earth policies.

Distinction and Proportionality

Modern laws of war emphasize the principles of distinction (between combatants and civilians) and proportionality (ensuring military advantage outweighs collateral damage). Scorched-earth tactics often violate these principles due to their indiscriminate and devastating impact on civilian populations and the environment.

Historical Examples

American Civil War

Union generals like William Tecumseh Sherman and Philip Sheridan employed scorched-earth tactics during the American Civil War. Sherman's March to the Sea and Sheridan's Shenandoah Valley campaign involved destroying infrastructure, crops, and supplies to cripple the Confederacy's ability to wage war.

Napoleonic Wars

During Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, the Russian army implemented a devastating scorched-earth strategy. As they retreated, they burned crops, destroyed villages, and poisoned wells, leaving little for the advancing Grande Armée. This tactic, combined with the harsh Russian winter, contributed significantly to Napoleon's defeat.

Second Boer War

British forces, under Lord Kitchener, utilized scorched-earth tactics against Boer civilians during the Second Boer War (1899–1902). Farms were destroyed, and Boer non-combatants were interned in concentration camps to cut off support for guerrilla fighters. This policy resulted in significant civilian casualties due to disease and starvation in the camps.

World War II

During World War II, both sides employed scorched-earth tactics. The Soviet Union destroyed resources as they retreated from the German advance in 1941. Later, German forces implemented similar strategies in occupied territories, notably in the Soviet Union and Northern Finland, to hinder advancing Allied forces and deny them resources.

Business World Analogy

Scorched-Earth Defense

The term "scorched-earth defense" is metaphorically applied in business strategy. It refers to actions taken by a company facing a hostile takeover to make itself less attractive or valuable to the acquirer. This might involve selling off key assets, taking on significant debt, or implementing other measures that diminish the target company's appeal.

Deterrence and Negotiation

Like its military counterpart, a business scorched-earth defense aims to deter the takeover bid or force the acquiring company to negotiate more favorable terms. The goal is to make the acquisition prohibitively expensive or strategically unsound, thereby protecting the company's independence or securing better terms for shareholders.

Related Concepts

Chevauchée

A chevauchée was a type of large-scale raid practiced during the Hundred Years' War. It involved devastating enemy territory by burning crops, villages, and towns, primarily to inflict economic damage and undermine morale, rather than capturing territory.

Ecocide

Ecocide refers to the widespread destruction of ecosystems. While distinct from military scorched earth, the large-scale environmental damage caused by some scorched-earth tactics can be considered a form of ecocide, impacting long-term ecological stability.

Total War

Scorched earth is often a component of total war strategies, where the distinction between combatants and non-combatants blurs, and the entire resources of a nation are mobilized for the war effort. It reflects a willingness to inflict widespread destruction to achieve strategic objectives.

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References

Naimark 2002, p. 46.

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The Ash & Ember Doctrine

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Definition 🔥

💣 Military Strategy

🎯 Objectives

⚖️ Legal Context

Origins of the Term ⏳

📜 Early Mentions

🏛️ Ancient Precedents

⚔️ Roman and Medieval Use

Military Theory 🧠

📖 Clausewitz's Perspective

📉 Impact on Logistics

🔥 Psychological Warfare

Legal Framework ⚖️

📜 Geneva Conventions

🚫 Prohibitions

⚖️ Distinction and Proportionality

Historical Examples 🌍

🇺🇸 American Civil War

🇷🇺 Napoleonic Wars

🇬🇧 Second Boer War

💥 World War II

Business World Analogy 💼

📉 Scorched-Earth Defense

🛡️ Deterrence and Negotiation

Related Concepts 🔗

🔥 Chevauchée

💀 Ecocide

⚔️ Total War

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Definition

Military Strategy

Objectives

Legal Context

Origins of the Term

Early Mentions

Ancient Precedents

Roman and Medieval Use

Military Theory

Clausewitz's Perspective

Impact on Logistics

Psychological Warfare

Legal Framework

Geneva Conventions

Prohibitions

Distinction and Proportionality

Historical Examples

American Civil War

Napoleonic Wars

Second Boer War

World War II

Business World Analogy

Scorched-Earth Defense

Deterrence and Negotiation

Related Concepts

Chevauchée

Ecocide

Total War

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

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Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice