What is the core concept of the separation of church and state?

The separation of church and state is a philosophical and jurisprudential concept that defines the political distance between religious organizations and the state. It aims to create a secular state, which may or may not have legally explicit church-state separation, and involves the disestablishment of any formal relationship between a church and the state.

Who were the early proponents of the concept of separation of church and state in America?

The concept originated among early Baptists in America. Roger Williams, a Baptist minister and founder of Rhode Island and the First Baptist Church in America, was the first public official to call for 'a wall or hedge of separation' in 1644. Thomas Jefferson later coined the exact phrase 'wall of separation between Church & State' in his 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptist Association.

Which Enlightenment philosopher significantly contributed to the idea of separating church and state?

The English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) is often credited with developing the concept of separating church and state. He argued that the government lacked authority over individual conscience, which he considered a natural right that must be protected from state control.

How does the 'arm's length principle' relate to the separation of church and state?

The arm's length principle suggests a relationship where religious organizations and the state interact as independent political entities, each operating without the authority of the other. This principle helps define the degree of political separation between the two.

What are some philosophies that parallel the separation of church and state?

The philosophy of the separation of church and state parallels secularism, disestablishmentarianism, religious liberty, and religious pluralism. These concepts generally advocate for a society where religious and governmental powers are distinct.

How did European states' assumption of social roles from the church impact society?

As European states adopted some of the social roles traditionally held by the church, particularly through the development of the welfare state, it led to a cultural shift that produced a more secular population and public sphere.

What was St. Augustine's view on the ideal relationship between the 'earthly city' and the 'city of God'?

In his work 'The City of God,' St. Augustine posited that there were significant overlaps between the 'earthly city' (the state) and the 'city of God' (the church). He believed that it was the role of the 'temporal city' to facilitate the establishment of a 'heavenly city' on earth, suggesting a cooperative rather than separate relationship.

What was the concept of 'divine right of kings' in Medieval Europe?

The divine right of kings was a belief that monarchs ruled by God's authority. This concept sometimes led to caesaropapism, where a king asserted control over both his kingdom and the Church within its borders, challenging the Pope's ultimate authority.

How did the Investiture Controversy highlight the struggle for power between church and state in medieval Europe?

The Investiture Controversy was a major power struggle in the West during the medieval period, centering on monarchs encroaching on the Church's spiritual authority. It was eventually resolved by the Concordat of Worms in 1122, which clarified that the Emperor renounced the right to invest ecclesiastics with symbols of spiritual power, ensuring free election and consecration by the Church.

What was Martin Luther's contribution to the concept of church and state relations during the Reformation?

At the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther articulated a 'doctrine of the two kingdoms.' James Madison considered this doctrine the starting point for the modern conception of the separation of church and state.

How did the Anabaptists' views on church-state relations differ from Luther's?

While Michael Sattler, an Anabaptist leader, agreed with Luther on the existence of two kingdoms, he argued that these kingdoms should be separate. Anabaptists believed that baptized believers should not participate in the 'kingdom of the world' by voting or holding public office, primarily seeking to protect the church from state power.

What significant change did Henry VIII make regarding the Church of England?

In 1534, Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church and established himself as the ruler of the Church of England, thereby unifying the feudal clerical and Crown hierarchies under a single monarchy. British monarchs have largely retained this ecclesiastical authority since then.

How did John Locke's 'A Letter Concerning Toleration' contribute to the idea of church-state separation?

In 'A Letter Concerning Toleration,' John Locke argued that ecclesiastical authority must be distinct from state authority because a church is a voluntary community whose power cannot extend to civil affairs. He stated that 'the Church itself is a thing absolutely separate and distinct from the commonwealth.'

Which other Enlightenment philosophers supported the separation of church and state?

Pierre Bayle, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Denis Diderot were other Enlightenment philosophers who promoted the separation of church and state. Diderot, for instance, famously stated that 'the distance between the throne and the altar can never be too great.'

What was the significance of Thomas Jefferson's 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptist Association?

In this letter, Thomas Jefferson used the phrase 'wall of separation between Church and State' to assure the Baptists that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution prevented the establishment of a national church, thereby protecting their religious conscience from government interference.

When did the U.S. Supreme Court first use Jefferson's 'wall of separation' metaphor?

The U.S. Supreme Court first used the metaphor 'a wall of separation between Church and State' in 1878 in the case of Reynolds v. United States, and subsequently in a series of cases beginning in 1947.

What is the nature of church-state relations in England?

England has a constitutionally established state religion, the Church of England, with the British monarch serving as its supreme governor. Twenty-six bishops of the Church of England, known as Lords Spiritual, hold seats in the House of Lords, the upper house of government.

How does Australia's Constitution address the separation of church and state?

Section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits the Commonwealth from establishing any religion, imposing religious observances, or requiring a religious test for public office. However, this section has been interpreted narrowly by the High Court, and it does not apply to individual states.

What is the official religious status of Azerbaijan?

Despite Islam being the dominant religion with 96% of the population being Muslim, Azerbaijan is officially a secular state. Article 7 of its Constitution defines it as a democratic, legal, secular, unitary republic, guaranteeing freedom of religions and beliefs.

How did Brazil achieve the separation of church and state?

Brazil, a former Portuguese colony where Roman Catholicism was the official state religion, severed ties between church and state with the enactment of its 1891 Republican Constitution. This separation, influenced by French laïcité and US principles, has been maintained in subsequent constitutions, including the current 1988 Constitution.

What is the Chinese government's approach to religion as outlined in its constitution?

Article 36 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees freedom of religious belief, stating that no state organ, public organization, or individual may compel or discriminate against citizens based on their religious beliefs. It also prohibits using religion to disrupt public order, impair health, or interfere with the educational system, and asserts that religious bodies are not subject to foreign domination.

What is the status of religious education and state support for churches in Croatia?

Croatia's Constitution defines all religious communities as equal and separated from the state. While public schools offer optional religious teaching in cooperation with religious communities, the Roman Catholic Church receives state financial support and other benefits through concordats with the government.

What is the unique status of the Evangelical Lutheran Church and the Finnish Orthodox Church in Finland?

The Constitution of Finland regulates the organization and administration of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland and the Finnish Orthodox Church through specific acts. These churches hold a special status in Finnish legislation and are sometimes referred to as 'national churches,' though the Lutheran Church prefers this term over 'state church.'

Explain the French concept of 'laïcité' regarding church and state.

Laïcité, formalized by a 1905 law, is the French version of church and state separation. It protects religious institutions from state interference while also safeguarding public power from religious influence, particularly in public office. This model generally discourages public religious expression to maintain state neutrality.

What are some notable entanglements between church and state that persist in France despite 'laïcité'?

Despite laïcité, entanglements exist, such as in Alsace and Moselle, where the 1802 Concordat still applies, leading to state-paid clergy and religion courses in schools. The French President also formally appoints Catholic bishops in Metz and Strasbourg and holds an honorary title of Canon of the Papal Archbasilica of St. John Lateran.

How does Germany's approach to church-state relations differ from a complete separation?

Germany's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, but it does not enforce a complete separation. Officially recognized religious bodies operate as 'corporations of public law,' and the state collects church taxes on their behalf for a fee. Religious instruction is an optional school subject, and the state maintains treaties (concordats and state treaties) with various religious communities.

What is the prevailing religion in Greece according to its constitution, and what are the implications?

Article 3 of the Greek Constitution declares the Greek Orthodox Church of Christ as the prevailing religion, inseparably united in doctrine with the Great Church of Christ in Constantinople. This constitutional recognition has led to controversy and appears to affect the official recognition mechanism for other religious groups in the country.

How does India's concept of 'secularism' differ from the Western understanding of church-state separation?

India's Constitution defines secularism in a unique way, focusing on the social implications of religious practice rather than a strict 'vertical' separation. Article 25 guarantees religious freedom but empowers the state to regulate secular activities associated with religion, allowing for state interference in the public interest, a concept known as 'Positive Secularism.'

What does the Italian Constitution state regarding the relationship between the State and the Catholic Church?

Article 7 of the Italian Constitution affirms that the State and the Catholic Church are independent and sovereign within their respective spheres. Their relations are governed by the Lateran pacts, and amendments to these pacts do not require constitutional amendment procedures if accepted by both parties.

How did Japan transition from a state religion to a system of religious freedom?

After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Shinto became the state religion, leading to the suppression of other faiths. Following the American military occupation (1945–52), 'State Shinto' was dismantled, and the 1947 Japanese Constitution established freedom of religion, prohibiting government compulsion of religious observances or the use of public money for religious institutions.

What measures did Benito Juárez implement to separate church and state in Mexico?

Benito Juárez, in 1859, initiated a separation of church and state in Mexico by confiscating church property, disbanding religious orders, and restricting the legal rights of the church through the Juárez Law. The Ley Lerdo further abolished monastic orders and nationalized church property.

What was the impact of the Calles Law in Mexico?

Enacted in 1926 by President Plutarco Elías Calles, the Calles Law aimed to eradicate all personal property of churches, close unregistered churches, and prohibit clerics from holding public office. This unpopular law led to the Cristero War, after which it remained enacted but unenforced.

What changes occurred in Norway's church-state relationship in 2017?

Effective January 1, 2017, an act approved in 2016 transformed the Church of Norway into an independent legal entity. Previously, clergy were civil servants. While the Church of Norway remains the 'people's church' supported by the state, it now has increased autonomy, including the responsibility for appointing bishops and provosts.

What are the key constitutional provisions for church-state separation in the Philippines?

The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines declares the separation of Church and State to be 'inviolable' in Article II, Section 6. Additionally, Article III, Section 5, ensures religious freedom, prohibits laws establishing religion or restricting its free exercise, and forbids religious tests for civil or political rights.

Is Romania a secular state, and how does its constitution address religion?

Romania is a secular state with no official state religion. Its Constitution, in Article 29, guarantees freedom of conscience and religion, and in Article 32, ensures freedom of religious education in state schools. Religious cults are autonomous but receive state support for religious assistance in public institutions like the army and hospitals.

What is the relationship between mosque and state in Saudi Arabia?

In Saudi Arabia, there is no separation of mosque and state, as its legal system is based on Sharia, which is Islamic law derived from the Quran and the Sunnah of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

How does Singapore manage religious diversity and the separation of church and state?

Singapore is a multi-religious country with no state religion, and its government strives to avoid prioritizing any specific faith. However, it has taken actions like de-registering and banning Jehovah's Witnesses in 1972 due to their refusal to perform obligatory military service and other civic duties.

What characterized the historical separation of church and state in Spain, and what is the current situation?

The separation of church and state in Spain, particularly under the 1931 Constitution, was characterized as 'hostile,' contributing to the Spanish Civil War. After the war, the Catholic Church regained a predominant position. Since 1978, the Spanish Constitution states that 'No religion shall have a state character' but mandates appropriate cooperation with the Catholic Church and other confessions.

When did the Church of Sweden separate from the state, and what is its current status?

The Church of Sweden was formally separated from the state on January 1, 2000. However, it remains Sweden's national church and is still regulated by government law. The Swedish constitution also requires the Sovereign and members of the royal family to be of evangelical Lutheran faith and members of the Church of Sweden.

How is the relationship between church and state regulated in Switzerland?

Switzerland's Federal Constitution guarantees individual freedom of beliefs and separates churches and state at the federal level since 1848. However, Article 72 delegates the regulation of church-state relations to the cantons, leading to some cantons officially recognizing certain churches while others are secular.

What is the Turkish interpretation of secularism, known as Kemalism?

Turkey, an overwhelmingly Muslim country, practices a form of secularism called laïcité, or Kemalism, which places religion under strict state control. The Constitution's Preamble states there should be no interference of religious feelings in state affairs. The state pays imams' wages for Sunni Muslims, provides Sunni religious education in public schools, and its Directorate of Religious Affairs organizes Sunni Muslim religion, including sermon content.

What are some ways the Church of England remains intertwined with the British state?

The Church of England is an established church, with the British Sovereign as its supreme governor. Senior Church appointments are Crown appointments, the Church performs state functions like coronations, and 26 bishops (Lords Spiritual) sit in the House of Lords, influencing moral issues. The Anglican Church also has specific legal rights in solemnized marriages.

How does the Church of Scotland's relationship with the state differ from the Church of England's?

Unlike the Church of England, the Church of Scotland (the Kirk) is Presbyterian and has been disestablished since 1921, meaning the Sovereign holds no formal role other than being an ordinary member. However, Scotland is not a secular polity; the Kirk remains a national church with special state obligations, and the monarch must attend when visiting Scotland.

What is the significance of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution regarding religion?

The First Amendment, ratified in 1791, states that 'Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.' This clause is central to the concept of separation of church and state in the U.S., preventing the federal government from establishing a national religion or interfering with religious practice.

How did the Great Awakenings influence the disestablishment of state religions in the American colonies and states?

The First Great Awakening (c. 1730–1755) increased religious diversity in the Thirteen Colonies, prompting the five southernmost states to disestablish the Church of England between 1776 and 1790. The Second Great Awakening (starting c. 1790) further amplified religious diversity, leading to additional disestablishments in states like New Hampshire (1817), Connecticut (1818), and Massachusetts (1833).

What did the Treaty of Tripoli (1797) state about the religious foundation of the United States government?

Article 11 of the Treaty of Tripoli, ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1797, explicitly stated: 'As the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion.' This was intended to reassure the Muslim state of Tripoli that the pact was between sovereign states, not religious powers, and that religious opinions would not interrupt harmony.

What was the Supreme Court's declaration in the 1892 case *Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States*?

In this case, Supreme Court Justice David Brewer, writing for a unanimous Court, declared that 'no purpose of action against religion can be imputed to any legislation, state or national, because this is a religious people. ... [T]his is a Christian nation.' This reflected the prevailing 19th-century Protestant view of America.

How did James Madison articulate his views on the separation of church and state?

James Madison, a principal drafter of the Bill of Rights, contended that religion should be exempt from governmental authority. He wrote of 'total separation of the church from the state' and emphasized that a 'practical distinction between Religion and Civil Government is essential to the purity of both, and as guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States.'

What was John F. Kennedy's stance on the separation of church and state during his 1960 presidential campaign?

In his address to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association, John F. Kennedy declared his belief in an 'absolute' separation of church and state. He asserted that no religious leader should dictate a President's actions, no public funds should go to church schools, and public office should not be denied based on religion. He pledged to make decisions based on national interest and conscience, free from religious pressures.

How has the U.S. Supreme Court viewed the 'separation of church and state' metaphor?

The U.S. Supreme Court has referenced the metaphor over 25 times but has not always fully embraced it, stating that 'the metaphor itself is not a wholly accurate description of the practical aspects of the relationship that in fact exists between church and state.' Some justices, like Scalia, have criticized it as a 'bulldozer removing religion from American public life.'

Why do critics argue that the phrase 'under God' in the Pledge of Allegiance violates the separation of church and state?

Critics argue that the inclusion of 'under God,' added to the Pledge of Allegiance in 1954, violates the First Amendment's Establishment Clause by endorsing a religious belief. This was challenged in the 2004 Supreme Court case *Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow*, though the ruling was on procedural grounds.

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Defining the Divide

Core Concept

The "separation of church and state" is a foundational philosophical and jurisprudential concept that delineates the political distance between religious organizations and the civil state. At its essence, it advocates for the establishment of a secular state, which may or may not have explicit legal provisions for church-state separation, and often involves the disestablishment of any existing formal ties between religious institutions and the government.

Historical Genesis

While the underlying ideas are ancient, the precise phrase "separation of church and state" emerged from a letter penned by Thomas Jefferson in 1802 to the Danbury Baptist Association. However, the concept itself was articulated earlier by early American Baptists, notably Roger Williams in 1644, who called for "a wall or hedge of separation" between the "wilderness of the world" and the "garden of the church."

Related Philosophies

This principle is intrinsically linked with several other philosophical tenets, including secularism, which promotes the idea that governmental institutions should exist separately from religious institutions; disestablishmentarianism, advocating for the removal of a state church; religious liberty, ensuring individuals' freedom to practice or not practice religion; and religious pluralism, fostering an environment where diverse religious beliefs can coexist peacefully. These philosophies collectively contributed to a societal shift in Europe, where states began to assume social roles traditionally held by the church, leading to the rise of the welfare state and a more secular public sphere.

Ancient & Medieval Roots

Antiquity's Entanglements

The intricate relationship between religion and state is not a modern phenomenon; its roots stretch back to antiquity. Historical records, such as the prosecution and conviction of Socrates for impiety in ancient Athens, illustrate early instances of state intervention in religious matters. This period often saw a close association, if not outright fusion, of state and religious authority.

Augustine's Dual Cities

A pivotal contribution to this discourse came from St. Augustine of Hippo in his seminal work, "The City of God." In it, he explored the ideal relationship between the "earthly city" (the temporal state) and the "city of God" (the spiritual realm). Augustine posited significant overlaps, particularly in the necessity for people to coexist harmoniously on Earth. Contrary to a strict separation, Augustine argued that the "temporal city" played a crucial role in facilitating the establishment of a "heavenly city" on Earth.

Medieval Power Struggles

Medieval Europe was characterized by a dynamic tension between monarchs, who often claimed divine right to rule, and the Papacy, which asserted ultimate spiritual and, at times, indirect political authority. Concepts like caesaropapism (monarch ruling both kingdom and church) clashed with papal claims, often justified by documents like the forged Donation of Constantine. Key conflicts, such as the Investiture Controversy, highlighted this unresolved contradiction, eventually leading to compromises like the Concordat of Worms in 1122, which delineated spheres of spiritual and secular power. Groups like the Waldensians also emerged, advocating for a separation of church and state.

The Reformation's Influence

Luther's Two Kingdoms

The dawn of the Protestant Reformation brought new theological perspectives that profoundly impacted the concept of church-state relations. Martin Luther articulated the "doctrine of the two kingdoms," distinguishing between the spiritual authority of the church and the temporal authority of the state. This doctrine is often considered a precursor to modern ideas of separation.

Radical Reformers & Protection

The Radical Reformation, particularly the Anabaptists, extended Luther's ideas. Figures like Michael Sattler argued for a distinct separation of these two kingdoms, asserting that baptized believers should not participate in worldly governance. This perspective became normative for many Anabaptists, who championed the idea that religion should never be coerced by state power, primarily seeking to protect the church from state interference.

English Monarchy & Church

In England, the relationship between church and state took a different trajectory. King Henry VIII's break with the Roman Catholic Church in 1534 established the monarch as the head of the Church of England, unifying feudal clerical and crown hierarchies. This move, while asserting royal supremacy, also led to periods of persecution and penal laws, compelling religious conformity. Such experiences spurred some to flee Great Britain, seeking freedom to worship as they wished in the American Colonies.

Enlightenment Philosophers

John Locke's Influence

The English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) is widely credited with developing the concept of separating church and state. Building on Roger Williams' "liberty of conscience," Locke's principle of the social contract posited that government lacked authority over individual conscience, as this was a right rational individuals could not cede. He argued that ecclesiastical authority must be distinct from state authority, as a church is a voluntary community whose power cannot extend to civil affairs. His views on religious tolerance profoundly influenced the American colonies.

Continental Thinkers

During the 17th century, Pierre Bayle, a proponent of fideism, also contributed by asserting faith's independence from reason, implicitly supporting a separation. By the 18th century, Enlightenment philosophers widely embraced these ideas. Montesquieu advocated for religious tolerance and a degree of separation. Voltaire, while defending some separation, ultimately subordinated the Church to state needs. Denis Diderot, however, was a staunch advocate for strict separation, famously stating, "the distance between the throne and the altar can never be too great."

The American Experiment

Jefferson's Wall

In the United States, the concept of a "wall of separation between Church and State" was famously articulated by Thomas Jefferson in his 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptist Association. He explained that the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, by prohibiting the establishment of a national church and guaranteeing the free exercise of religion, created this protective "wall." This assured religious denominations that the government would not interfere with their expressions of religious conscience.

Foundational Documents

The U.S. Bill of Rights, adopted in 1791, was a pioneering political expression against the establishment of religion. Preceding it was the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1786), also authored by Jefferson, which disestablished the Anglican Church in Virginia and guaranteed religious freedom. Internationally, the French Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1789 also reflected similar sentiments against state-controlled religion.

Supreme Court Interpretation

Jefferson's metaphor became integral to U.S. Supreme Court jurisprudence concerning the First Amendment. Chief Justice Morrison Waite first invoked it in Reynolds v. United States (1878), establishing its significance in legal interpretations of the Establishment Clause and Free Exercise Clause. This judicial application solidified the "wall of separation" as a cornerstone of American constitutional law.

Global Models of Separation

Diverse Approaches

The implementation of church-state separation varies significantly across the globe, reflecting diverse historical, cultural, and legal contexts. While some nations enforce strict separation, others maintain formal ties with religious institutions, often alongside robust guarantees of religious freedom. The degree of actual separation can range from total constitutional mandates to subtle forms of accommodationism, where religious symbols are present in the public sphere.

Below is a summary of how various countries approach the relationship between religious and civil institutions:

Country	Model of Separation / Relationship	Key Characteristics
Australia	Partial Separation / State Neutrality	Commonwealth cannot establish religion, but states can. Government funds religious schools. Parliaments open with Christian prayer. Monarch's Australian title unrelated to religious office.
Azerbaijan	Secular State	Islam dominant, but state and mosque are separate. Constitution guarantees freedom of religion. State Committee for Work with Religious Organizations controls relations.
Brazil	Strict Separation	Catholicism was state religion until 1889. 1891 Constitution severed ties, maintained since. Current 1988 Constitution ensures religious freedom, bans state churches, and dependence on religious leaders.
China	State Control / Separation	Historically Confucianism as state ideology. Post-1949, Chinese Communist Party maintains separation of temples from state affairs, but government exerts significant control over religious organizations. Constitution guarantees freedom but with state oversight.
Croatia	Constitutional Separation with State Support	Constitution defines religious communities as equal and separate. Public schools offer optional religious teaching. Roman Catholic Church receives state financial support and benefits via concordats; agreements with 14 other communities exist.
Finland	National Churches with Special Status	Constitution regulates Evangelical Lutheran Church and Finnish Orthodox Church, granting them special status ("national churches"). State provides funding, but churches do not consider themselves "state churches."
France	Strict Laïcité	Formalized by 1905 law. Protects religious institutions from state interference, but public religious expression is discouraged. Aims to protect public power from religious influence. Exceptions exist (Alsace-Moselle, French Guiana, President as Co-prince of Andorra).
Germany	Cooperative Separation	Constitution guarantees freedom of religion, but not complete separation. Recognized religious bodies are "corporations of public law." State collects church taxes upon request. Religious instruction is an optional school subject. State is neutral but cooperates via concordats and state treaties.
Greece	Prevailing State Religion	Greek Orthodox Church of Christ is the prevailing religion. Inseparably united in doctrine with Constantinople. Significant controversy over separation. No official mechanism for recognizing other religious groups.
India	"Positive Secularism" / Horizontal Separation	Unique concept differing from Western models. Constitution guarantees freedom of conscience but empowers the state to regulate secular activities associated with religious practice. Aims to ensure social equality and prevent religious discrimination.
Italy	Independent and Sovereign Spheres	Constitution states: "The State and the Catholic Church are independent and sovereign, each within its own sphere." Relations are regulated by the Lateran Pacts.
Japan	Strict Separation (Post-WWII)	Shinto was state religion until 1945. 1947 Constitution protects freedom of religion and prevents government from compelling religious observances or using public money for religious institutions.
Mexico	Historical Strict Separation / Anti-clericalism	Long history of conflict with the Catholic Church. Benito Juárez (1859) confiscated church property, disbanded orders, and ordered separation. Laws like Ley Juárez (1855) and Calles Law (1926) aimed to eliminate the Church's public role, leading to the Cristero War.
Norway	"People's Church" with Increased Autonomy	Church of Norway (Evangelical-Lutheran) remains "Norway's people's church" and is state-supported. Since 2017, it is an independent legal entity with increased autonomy (e.g., appointing bishops). King must be Lutheran.
Philippines	Inviolable Separation	1987 Constitution explicitly declares "The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable" and guarantees free exercise of religion without discrimination.
Romania	Secular State with State Support	Secular state with no state religion. Constitution guarantees freedom of conscience and autonomy of religious cults. State provides support and facilitates religious assistance in public institutions; religious education is organized in state schools.
Saudi Arabia	No Separation / Theocracy	Legal system is based entirely on Sharia (Islamic law). No separation of mosque and state; Islam is the state religion.
Singapore	No State Religion / State Control	No state religion, government avoids giving priority. However, the state has banned certain religious groups (e.g., Jehovah's Witnesses) for refusing military service or allegiance, demonstrating state control over religious practice.
Spain	Cooperative Non-Confessionalism	Historically, periods of "hostile" separation. Since 1978, Constitution states "No religion shall have a state character," but public authorities "shall maintain appropriate cooperation relations with the Catholic Church and other confessions."
Sweden	National Church (Disestablished)	Church of Sweden (Lutheran) was a state church until 2000. Now separated but remains "national church" regulated by government law. Sovereign and royal family members must confess evangelical Lutheran faith.
Switzerland	Federal Separation / Cantonal Variation	Federal Constitution guarantees individual freedom of beliefs; churches and state separated at federal level since 1848. However, cantons regulate church-state relations, with some officially recognizing churches and others being secular.
Turkey	Laïcité (State Control)	Officially secular since 1928 (Kemalism). Constitution states no interference of religious feelings in state affairs. State controls religion: pays Sunni imams, provides Sunni religious education, Directorate of Religious Affairs oversees sermons.
United Kingdom	Established Church	Church of England is an established church. British Sovereign is Supreme Governor and cannot be Roman Catholic. State schools have religious affiliations, and a daily act of Christian worship is required in some. 26 diocesan bishops (Lords Spiritual) sit in the House of Lords.

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References

The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States (1992), Kermit D. Hall, Ed. pp. 717â726

Plato, The Death of Socrates.

Bender, H. S. "The Anabaptists and Religious Liberty in the Sixteenth Century." Mennonite Quarterly Review 29 (1955): 83â100.

Status of religious freedom by country

Anglican Church of Australia Constitution Act 1960 (Vic).

Lutheran Church of Australia Victorian District Incorporation Act 1971 (Vic).

Adoption Amendment (Same Sex Couples) Act 2010 (NSW).

Religious affiliation (faith schools). The Education Company

The First Amendment Encyclopedia

William M. Wiecek, The birth of the modern Constitution: the United States Supreme Court, 1941â1953 (Cambridge U.P., 2006) pp. 261â264

Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Gales & Seaton, 1834, Vol. I pp. 757â759, August 15, 1789

Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger. "Theology and the Church's Political Stance". In: Church, Ecumenism and Politics: New Essays in Ecclesiology (NY: Crossroad, 1988, p. 162).

Engineer, A. A. (2006). Islam and secularism (pp. 338-344). Malden; Oxford; Victoria: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Maier 2004, p. 110

Maier 2004, p. 111 4

Maier 2004, p. 106

de Tocqueville, Alexis, Democracy in America, edited and translated by Harvey Mansfield and Delba Winthrop, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Separation of church and state Wikipedia page

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The Unyoked Powers

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining the Divide 💡

📜 Core Concept

🌱 Historical Genesis

🤝 Related Philosophies

Ancient & Medieval Roots 🏛️

⏳ Antiquity's Entanglements

⛪ Augustine's Dual Cities

👑 Medieval Power Struggles

The Reformation's Influence ✝️

🗣️ Luther's Two Kingdoms

🛡️ Radical Reformers & Protection

🇬🇧 English Monarchy & Church

Enlightenment Philosophers 🧠

🖋️ John Locke's Influence

🌐 Continental Thinkers

The American Experiment 🦅

🧱 Jefferson's Wall

📝 Foundational Documents

🏛️ Supreme Court Interpretation

Global Models of Separation 🌐

🗺️ Diverse Approaches

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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Defining the Divide

Core Concept

Historical Genesis

Related Philosophies

Ancient & Medieval Roots

Antiquity's Entanglements

Augustine's Dual Cities

Medieval Power Struggles

The Reformation's Influence

Luther's Two Kingdoms

Radical Reformers & Protection

English Monarchy & Church

Enlightenment Philosophers

John Locke's Influence

Continental Thinkers

The American Experiment

Jefferson's Wall

Foundational Documents

Supreme Court Interpretation

Global Models of Separation

Diverse Approaches

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

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References

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Disclaimer

Important Notice