What is silicon, and what are its fundamental chemical and physical characteristics as described in the text?

Silicon is a chemical element with the symbol Si and atomic number 14. It is characterized as a hard, brittle crystalline solid with a blue-grey metallic lustre. Chemically, it is a tetravalent non-metal, often classified as a metalloid, and functions as a semiconductor. Its electron configuration is [Ne] 3s²3p², indicating it has four valence electrons.

In which group and period of the periodic table is silicon located, and which elements are in the same group?

Silicon is located in Group 14 and Period 3 of the periodic table. The elements in the same group (Group 14, also known as the carbon group) above silicon are Carbon, and below it are Germanium, Tin, Lead, and Flerovium.

What is the atomic weight of silicon, and what are the ranges provided for its standard atomic weight?

The standard atomic weight of silicon is given as 28.085. The text also provides a range of [28.084, 28.086] and an abridged value of 28.085 ± 0.001.

Describe the appearance of silicon and its state at standard temperature and pressure.

At standard temperature and pressure (STP), silicon is a solid. Its appearance is described as crystalline, with reflective faces that have a bluish tinge.

What are the melting and boiling points of silicon?

Silicon has a high melting point of 1687 °C (1414 K) and a boiling point of 3265 °C (3538 K). These points are noted as being the second highest among metalloids and nonmetals, surpassed only by Boron.

How does silicon's electrical conductivity change with temperature, and why?

Silicon's electrical conductivity increases as its temperature rises. This behavior is typical of semiconductors because silicon has a small energy gap between its valence and conduction bands, allowing thermal energy to excite electrons into the conduction band, thereby increasing conductivity.

What is the significance of silicon's band gap in its electrical properties?

Silicon has a small band gap, which is the energy difference between its valence band and conduction band. This small gap means that at room temperature, pure silicon is essentially an insulator, but doping or increasing temperature can provide enough energy to move electrons into the conduction band, making it conductive.

How is silicon classified in terms of its position in the periodic table and its block?

Silicon is classified as a p-block element. It is located in Group 14 and Period 3, placing it below Carbon and above Germanium in the periodic table.

What are the primary allotropes of silicon mentioned, and what is their crystal structure?

At standard conditions, silicon crystallizes in a diamond cubic crystal lattice, which is also known as face-centered cubic (cF8). Another allotrope, BC8 (or bc8), with a body-centered cubic lattice, can be created under high pressure and remains metastable at lower pressures.

Who is credited with the discovery and isolation of silicon in its pure form, and when did this occur?

Jöns Jacob Berzelius is credited with the discovery and first isolation of silicon in its pure form in 1823. He prepared amorphous silicon by reducing potassium fluorosilicate with molten potassium metal and purifying it through repeated washing.

What was Antoine Lavoisier's contribution to the understanding of silicon, and why couldn't he isolate it?

In 1787, Antoine Lavoisier suspected that silica might be the oxide of a chemical element. However, he was unable to isolate the element because silicon's strong chemical affinity for oxygen made it difficult to reduce the oxide with the methods available at that time.

How did silicon get its name, and what are some alternative naming conventions in other languages?

Silicon received its name from the Latin words 'silex' or 'silicis,' meaning flint. Many languages use transliterated forms of this name, while others use calques derived from the Latin root, referring to flint or quartz (e.g., Russian 'kremniy', Greek 'pyritio', Finnish 'pii').

What are the three stable isotopes of silicon, and what are their natural abundances?

Naturally occurring silicon is composed of three stable isotopes: Silicon-28 (²⁸Si) with an abundance of 92.24%, Silicon-29 (²⁹Si) at 4.67%, and Silicon-30 (³⁰Si) at 3.07%.

Which silicon isotope is particularly useful for NMR and EPR spectroscopy, and why?

Silicon-29 (²⁹Si) is useful for NMR and EPR spectroscopy because it is the only stable isotope with a nuclear spin (I = 1/2). This property allows it to be detected and analyzed using these spectroscopic techniques.

What are the most stable radioactive isotopes of silicon, and what are their half-lives?

The two most stable radioactive isotopes of silicon are Silicon-32 (³²Si), with a half-life of approximately 157 years, and Silicon-31 (³¹Si), with a half-life of 2.62 hours. All other radioactive isotopes of silicon have half-lives of less than seven seconds.

How is silicon distributed throughout the universe and on Earth?

Silicon is the eighth most common element by mass in the universe. In the Earth's crust, it is the second most abundant element (about 28% by mass) after oxygen, primarily found in the form of silicon dioxide (silica) and silicate minerals, which constitute over 90% of the crust.

What are the primary uses of silicon in its natural, unpurified form?

Most silicon is used industrially without extensive purification. It is incorporated into materials like clays, silica sand, and stone for construction. Silicates are key components in Portland cement for mortar and stucco, and in concrete when mixed with sand and gravel. They are also used in ceramics like porcelain and in various types of glass.

What is the 'Silicon Age,' and why is this period named after silicon?

The 'Silicon Age,' also known as the Digital Age or Information Age, refers to the late 20th and early 21st centuries. It is named after silicon's crucial role as the dominant material in semiconductor electronics, powering technologies like computers and smartphones, similar to how previous ages were defined by materials like stone, bronze, and iron.

How does doping silicon with specific elements create n-type and p-type semiconductors?

Doping silicon with elements from Group 15 (like Phosphorus) introduces an extra valence electron, creating n-type semiconductors. Conversely, doping with elements from Group 13 (like Boron) introduces fewer valence electrons, creating 'holes' that accept electrons, resulting in p-type semiconductors.

What is a p-n junction, and how does it function in electronic devices?

A p-n junction is formed by joining n-type and p-type silicon. This interface allows current to flow more easily in one direction than the other, acting like a diode to rectify alternating current. This property is fundamental to transistors and other semiconductor devices.

What is the significance of silicon dioxide (SiO₂) in silicon semiconductor technology?

Silicon dioxide is significant because it can be grown on silicon surfaces and acts as an excellent electrical insulator. This property is crucial for creating planar transistors and integrated circuits, providing isolation between components and acting as a gate dielectric in MOSFETs.

What process is commonly used to produce high-purity monocrystalline silicon for semiconductor applications?

High-purity monocrystalline silicon is typically produced using the Czochralski process. This method involves growing a single crystal from molten silicon, resulting in a highly pure, defect-free material essential for semiconductor wafers.

What is ferrosilicon, and what is its primary industrial application?

Ferrosilicon is an alloy of iron and silicon, produced by the carbothermal reduction of silicon dioxide in the presence of scrap iron. Its primary application is in the iron and steel industry, where it's used as an alloying addition and as a de-oxidizing agent.

How does silicon contribute to the properties of aluminum alloys, such as silumin?

Adding silicon to aluminum alloys, like silumin, significantly improves their properties. It forms a eutectic mixture at around 12% silicon, which solidifies with minimal thermal contraction, reducing casting defects. Silicon also enhances the hardness and wear resistance of aluminum.

What is metallurgical grade silicon, and what percentage of world consumption is used for semiconductor purposes?

Metallurgical grade silicon is silicon with a purity of 95-99%. Approximately 15% of the world's production of metallurgical grade silicon is further refined to semiconductor purity, which is significantly higher.

What are silicon quantum dots, and what are some of their potential applications?

Silicon quantum dots are nanocrystals made from silicon, typically ranging from a few nanometers to microns in size. They exhibit size-dependent luminescent properties and have potential applications in quantum dot displays, luminescent solar concentrators, and as sensors for hazardous materials due to their tunable optical properties and non-toxic nature.

How is silicon utilized in thermal energy storage, and what are its advantages?

Silicon is being researched for thermal energy storage due to its ability to store large amounts of energy at high temperatures (over 1 MWh/m³ at 1400°C). Its advantages include higher storage capacity and efficiency compared to salts, and its relative abundance.

What role does silicon play in the biological processes of plants and marine organisms?

In plants, silicon (as orthosilicic acid) strengthens cell walls, enhancing resistance to pests and diseases. Marine organisms like diatoms and sponges use biogenic silica for structural components, such as cell walls (frustules) and skeletons.

Is silicon considered essential for human nutrition, and what evidence supports this?

There is evidence suggesting silicon is important for human health, particularly for nail, hair, bone, and skin tissues. Studies indicate higher dietary silicon intake is linked to better bone density, and supplementation may benefit osteoporosis patients. It's also needed for elastin and collagen synthesis.

What is the historical context of silicon's use before its chemical isolation?

Before its chemical isolation, silicon-based materials like rock crystals and silica were used by ancient civilizations for decorative items and in glassmaking. Natural silicate compounds were also employed in mortars for construction.

What is the 'Silicon Age' in the context of civilization's material progression?

The 'Silicon Age' refers to the current era, marked by the dominance of silicon in electronics and information technology. This naming convention follows historical patterns where civilizations were defined by their primary materials, such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.

How does the chemical affinity of silicon for oxygen relate to its discovery?

Silicon's high chemical affinity for oxygen meant that it was difficult to remove oxygen from silica to isolate the pure element. This affinity is why Antoine Lavoisier suspected silica contained an element but could not isolate it, and why Jöns Jacob Berzelius's successful isolation in 1823 required specific chemical reduction methods.

What is the difference between silicon and silicone?

Silicon is a chemical element (Si), while silicone is a synthetic polymer containing silicon, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. Silicones are known for their flexibility, heat resistance, and water-repellent properties, used in various applications from sealants to medical implants.

What are silicates, and how are they relevant to silicon's occurrence and uses?

Silicates are compounds containing silicon and oxygen, often forming anions. They are the most abundant minerals in the Earth's crust, making up over 90% of it. Their direct use in construction, ceramics, and glass highlights silicon's widespread natural occurrence and industrial importance.

What is the role of silicon in stellar nucleosynthesis?

Silicon plays a role in stellar nucleosynthesis as a product of the alpha process and is involved in the silicon-burning process. This process, occurring in massive stars during their final stages, involves the fusion of silicon isotopes with alpha particles, contributing to the creation of heavier elements before a supernova.

What are the typical oxidation states of silicon?

The common oxidation states for silicon are -4 and +4. However, it can also exhibit other oxidation states, including -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, and +3, though these are less common or stable.

Why is silicon considered a metalloid rather than strictly a non-metal?

Silicon is often considered a metalloid because it exhibits properties intermediate between metals and non-metals. While it is primarily a semiconductor and has a high melting point like non-metals, it also shows some metallic characteristics, such as forming alloys and having a lower electronegativity compared to carbon.

What is the significance of the p-n junction discovered by Russell Ohl in silicon?

Russell Ohl's discovery of the p-n junction and photovoltaic effects in silicon in 1940 was a foundational step for modern semiconductor electronics. The p-n junction is the basis for diodes and transistors, enabling the control of electrical current and the conversion of light into electricity.

How does the C-Si bond strength compare to the C-C bond strength, and what is the implication for silicon chemistry?

The average Si-Si bond energy is significantly weaker (approximately 226 kJ/mol) than the C-C bond energy (356 kJ/mol). This weaker bond contributes to silicon's lower tendency for catenation (forming chains) and the general instability of multiply bonded silicon compounds compared to their carbon counterparts.

What are some of the geographical locations named 'Silicon [Something]' and why?

Numerous regions worldwide are nicknamed 'Silicon [Something]' (e.g., Silicon Valley, Silicon Wadi, Silicon Forest) due to the significant presence and importance of the semiconductor industry and silicon-based technology in those areas.

What is silicosis, and how is it related to silicon exposure?

Silicosis is an occupational lung disease caused by inhaling crystalline silica dust. It leads to inflammation and scarring in the lungs, forming nodular lesions. This highlights a significant safety concern for workers exposed to fine silica particles.

What is the role of diatoms in the ocean's silicon cycle?

Diatoms are key players in the ocean's silicon cycle, utilizing dissolved silicon (silicic acid) to build their intricate silica cell walls, known as frustules. Their productivity influences silicon concentrations in surface waters and contributes to the export of silicon to the deep ocean through processes like marine snow.

What is the 'biogeochemical divide' mentioned in relation to the Southern Ocean and silicon?

The Southern Ocean is described as having a 'biogeochemical divide' because only minimal amounts of silicon are transported out of this region. This isolation is partly due to the high diatom productivity within the Southern Ocean, which consumes much of the available silicon.

What are phytoliths, and what is their function in plants?

Phytoliths are microscopic structures made of silica (opal) that are deposited within plant tissues. They provide structural support to plants, contributing to their rigidity and potentially aiding in defense mechanisms.

What is the primary difference in chemical bonding behavior between silicon and carbon?

A key difference lies in their hybridization and orbital overlap. Carbon's 2p orbitals overlap effectively, enabling strong double and triple bonds and extensive catenation. Silicon's 3p orbitals are more diffuse, leading to weaker bonds, less catenation, and a greater tendency towards hypervalence (forming more than four bonds) in some compounds.

What is the significance of silicon's high melting and boiling points compared to other elements?

Silicon's high melting (1414 °C) and boiling (3265 °C) points are second only to Boron among metalloids and nonmetals. This is attributed to its strong covalent bonds within a giant crystalline structure, requiring significant energy to break.

How does the 'Silicon Age' relate to previous historical ages defined by materials?

The 'Silicon Age' is analogous to the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age in that it signifies an era defined by the dominant material shaping technology and society. In this case, silicon's role in electronics and information technology has led to its designation as the defining material of our current era.

What is the primary reason silicon is the dominant semiconductor material?

Silicon is the dominant semiconductor material due to its favorable band gap, which allows for control over its electrical conductivity through doping. Additionally, its stable silicon dioxide layer, high melting point, and relatively abundant nature contribute to its widespread use in electronics.

What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, using silicon as an example?

Pure silicon is an intrinsic semiconductor, meaning its conductivity is low at room temperature. Extrinsic semiconductors are created by doping silicon with impurities: n-type semiconductors have excess electrons (from Group 15 elements), and p-type semiconductors have excess holes (from Group 13 elements), both significantly increasing conductivity and enabling device functionality.

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Overview

Elemental Identity

Silicon, symbolized as Si with atomic number 14, is a hard, brittle, crystalline solid exhibiting a blue-grey metallic lustre. It is classified as a tetravalent non-metal, though often considered a metalloid, and functions as a semiconductor. It resides in Group 14 of the periodic table, positioned below carbon and above germanium.

Cosmic and Terrestrial Abundance

Silicon ranks as the eighth most abundant element by mass in the universe. Within Earth's crust, it is the second most abundant element, constituting approximately 28% by mass, primarily found combined with oxygen as silicon dioxide (silica) and various silicate minerals. This widespread availability underpins its extensive use.

The Semiconductor Powerhouse

Silicon's unique electronic properties, particularly its semiconductor nature and controllable conductivity through doping, make it indispensable for modern electronics. It forms the basis of transistors, integrated circuits, and solar cells, driving the digital revolution and the Information Age.

Historical Context

Ancient Utilization

While the element itself was not isolated until the 19th century, silicon compounds have been utilized for millennia. Ancient civilizations employed silica-based materials like glass, ceramics, and stone in construction and crafts. Predynastic Egyptians and ancient Chinese crafted beads and vases from rock crystal, demonstrating early appreciation for silicon's forms.

Discovery and Naming

Antoine Lavoisier first suspected silica to be an oxide of an element in 1787. However, it was Jöns Jacob Berzelius who first prepared and characterized silicon in its pure, albeit amorphous, form in 1823. The element's name, derived from the Latin word for flint, 'silex', was proposed by Thomas Thomson in 1817, reflecting its non-metallic character.

The Dawn of the Silicon Age

The mid-20th century marked a paradigm shift with the development of silicon-based semiconductor devices. The invention of the transistor and integrated circuit, leveraging silicon's unique electrical properties, ushered in the "Silicon Age," fundamentally transforming computing, communication, and countless other technological domains.

Key Properties

Physical Characteristics

Silicon possesses a high melting point (1687 K / 1414 °C) and boiling point (3538 K / 3265 °C), surpassed only by boron among metalloids and non-metals. Its density is 2.33 g/cm³ at 20°C. At standard conditions, it exists as a solid with a characteristic bluish-grey metallic lustre.

Electrical Behavior

As a semiconductor, silicon's conductivity increases with temperature due to its small band gap. Pure silicon is an intrinsic semiconductor. Doping with elements like phosphorus (n-type) or boron (p-type) allows precise control over its electrical properties, enabling the creation of essential electronic components like p-n junctions, diodes, and transistors.

Crystalline Structure

Silicon crystallizes in a diamond cubic lattice structure, characterized by tetrahedral coordination. This arrangement requires significant energy to break the strong covalent bonds, contributing to its high melting point. While stable under standard conditions, other allotropes exist under high pressure.

Silicon Compounds

Silicates: The Earth's Framework

Silicates, compounds of silicon and oxygen often paired with metallic ions, form the vast majority of Earth's crustal minerals. They are fundamental to construction materials like Portland cement, mortar, stucco, and concrete. Additionally, silicates are the basis for various glasses, including common soda-lime glass and specialized optical fibers.

Silicones and Carbides

Silicones are synthetic polymers known for their versatility, used in waterproofing, molding compounds, lubricants, and sealants. Silicon carbide (SiC) is renowned for its exceptional hardness, finding applications as an abrasive and in high-strength ceramics.

Silicon Alloys

Ferrosilicon in Steelmaking

Ferrosilicon, an alloy of iron and silicon, is crucial for the steel industry. It acts as a deoxidizer, improving steel quality, and is added to cast iron to prevent cementite formation and enhance performance in thin sections. Approximately 80% of global silicon production is in the form of ferrosilicon.

Aluminum-Silicon Alloys

Aluminum-silicon alloys, such as silumin, are vital in the automotive industry. The addition of silicon (around 12%) creates a eutectic mixture that solidifies with minimal thermal contraction, reducing casting defects. It also significantly enhances aluminum's hardness and wear resistance.

Electronics and Technology

The Core of Computing

Silicon's role in electronics is paramount. High-purity monocrystalline silicon, produced via the Czochralski process, forms the substrate for integrated circuits and transistors. Its controllable semiconductor properties, achieved through precise doping, enable the functionality of virtually all modern electronic devices.

Advanced Applications

Beyond conventional electronics, silicon finds use in advanced technologies. Silicon quantum dots exhibit tunable luminescent properties and are explored for displays and sensors, offering a non-toxic alternative to heavy metal quantum dots. Silicon is also investigated for high-capacity thermal energy storage due to its high melting point.

Biological Significance

Plant Life

Silicon is essential for the growth and defense of many plants. It strengthens cell walls, enhancing structural integrity and providing resistance against pests and pathogens. Plants absorb silicon as orthosilicic acid, which can trigger defense mechanisms and improve overall resilience.

Marine Microorganisms

Organisms like diatoms, radiolaria, and siliceous sponges utilize biogenic silica for their skeletal structures. Diatoms, in particular, play a significant role in the ocean's silicon cycle, influencing nutrient distribution from surface waters to the deep ocean.

Human Health

Emerging evidence suggests silicon is important for human health, particularly for connective tissues like nails, hair, bones, and skin. It plays a role in collagen and elastin synthesis, potentially contributing to bone density and cardiovascular health. While considered essential, definitive deficiency symptoms are challenging to establish due to its ubiquity.

Safety and Handling

Workplace Exposure

Elemental silicon can be an irritant to skin and eyes. Inhalation of silicon dust, particularly crystalline silica, poses a significant respiratory hazard. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) have established permissible exposure limits to mitigate risks in industrial settings.

Health Risks: Silicosis

Prolonged inhalation of crystalline silica dust can lead to silicosis, a serious occupational lung disease characterized by inflammation and scarring of lung tissue. Adherence to safety protocols and the use of personal protective equipment are critical in environments where silicon dust may be present.

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References

"Semi" SemiSource 2006: A supplement to Semiconductor International. December 2005. Reference Section: How to Make a Chip. Adapted from Design News. Reed Electronics Group.

SemiSource 2006: A supplement to Semiconductor International. December 2005. Reference Section: How to Make a Chip. Adapted from Design News. Reed Electronics Group.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Silicon Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional material science, engineering, or technological consultation. Always refer to official documentation and consult with qualified professionals for specific applications or requirements.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

Silicon: The Foundation of the Digital Age

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview ⚛️

💎 Elemental Identity

🌍 Cosmic and Terrestrial Abundance

💡 The Semiconductor Powerhouse

Historical Context ⏳

🏺 Ancient Utilization

🔬 Discovery and Naming

🚀 The Dawn of the Silicon Age

Key Properties 🔬

🌡️ Physical Characteristics

⚡ Electrical Behavior

🧊 Crystalline Structure

Silicon Compounds 🧪

🏗️ Silicates: The Earth's Framework

🔗 Silicones and Carbides

Silicon Alloys ⚙️

🏭 Ferrosilicon in Steelmaking

🚗 Aluminum-Silicon Alloys

Electronics and Technology 💡

💻 The Core of Computing

✨ Advanced Applications

Biological Significance 🌱

🌿 Plant Life

🌊 Marine Microorganisms

👩‍⚕️ Human Health

Safety and Handling 🛡️

⚠️ Workplace Exposure

🫁 Health Risks: Silicosis

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

Elemental Identity

Cosmic and Terrestrial Abundance

The Semiconductor Powerhouse

Historical Context

Ancient Utilization

Discovery and Naming

The Dawn of the Silicon Age

Key Properties

Physical Characteristics

Electrical Behavior

Crystalline Structure

Silicon Compounds

Silicates: The Earth's Framework

Silicones and Carbides

Silicon Alloys

Ferrosilicon in Steelmaking

Aluminum-Silicon Alloys

Electronics and Technology

The Core of Computing

Advanced Applications

Biological Significance

Plant Life

Marine Microorganisms

Human Health

Safety and Handling

Workplace Exposure

Health Risks: Silicosis

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice