What is the current estimated number of people living in illegal slavery-like conditions in Russia, according to the 2023 Global Slavery Index?

The 2023 Global Slavery Index estimates that 1,899,000 people are currently living in illegal slavery-like conditions in Russia. This figure represents approximately 1.26% of the country's population.

What specific forms of modern slavery are identified in Russia by the 2023 Global Slavery Index?

The 2023 Global Slavery Index identifies several forms of modern slavery in Russia, including forced labor, forced prostitution, debt bondage, forced servile marriage, exploitation of children, and forced prison labor. These conditions disproportionately affect marginalized groups.

Which groups are most vulnerable to modern slavery in Russia, according to the 2023 Global Slavery Index?

According to the 2023 Global Slavery Index, undocumented immigrants from the Caucasus and former Soviet states are among the groups most vulnerable to modern slavery in Russia. These individuals often face precarious legal statuses that make them susceptible to exploitation.

When did serfdom in Russia officially end, and who decreed its emancipation?

Serfdom in Russia officially ended on February 19, 1861, when Emperor Alexander II ordered the emancipation of the serfs. The emancipation of state-owned serfs occurred later, in 1866.

What does the Russian term 'krepostnoi krestyanin' translate to, and how is it generally understood?

The Russian term 'krepostnoi krestyanin' is usually translated as 'serf'. It refers to an unfree person, whose status varied by law, but who could not be owned individually like property. Unlike a slave, a serf was attached to the land and could not freely move without the landowner's consent, often working the land as sharecroppers or laborers.

How did the concept of a 'kholop' in Kievan Rus' and later Russian principalities differ from that of a slave?

In Kievan Rus' and subsequent Russian principalities, 'kholopy' were a specific type of serf. While they were unfree, they differed from chattel slaves in that they could not be owned individually as property. However, their status was still one of servitude, and they could become kholops through various means such as capture, self-sale, debt, or marriage to a kholop.

What were the primary ways an individual could become a 'kholop' in Kievan Rus'?

An individual could become a 'kholop' in Kievan Rus' through several means: capture in war, selling oneself into servitude, being sold due to debts, committing crimes, or marrying someone who was already a kholop. These pathways highlight the varied origins of unfree labor.

How did the power of a master over a 'kholop' evolve over centuries in Russia?

Generally, the power a master held over a 'kholop' increased over the centuries. This trend culminated in the late 16th century with the prohibition of serfs moving between lands on George's Day in Autumn, a day traditionally set aside for such transitions. However, this power began to diminish through reforms initiated by rulers like Alexei Mikhailovich and Peter the Great in subsequent centuries.

What significant restriction on serf movement was imposed in the late 16th century in Russia?

In the late 16th century, a significant restriction was imposed that forbade the movement of serfs on George's Day in Autumn. This day was traditionally when serfs could legally switch the land they inhabited and, consequently, their masters, effectively tying them more firmly to their current landowners.

What historical event in 1382 led to a large number of Muscovites being taken as slaves?

In 1382, the Golden Horde, under the leadership of Khan Tokhtamysh, sacked Moscow. This devastating event resulted in the burning of the city and the capture of thousands of its inhabitants, who were carried off as slaves.

What was the nature of the Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands, and when did they persist?

The Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands involved capturing people to be sold into slavery. These raids were a significant source of slaves for the Crimean slave trade and continued routinely until well into the 16th century, with some raids even occurring into the 18th century.

What proportion of the population in Crimea consisted of slaves, according to historical accounts?

According to historical accounts, about 75% of the population in Crimea consisted of slaves. This indicates that slavery was a deeply entrenched and widespread institution within the Crimean Khanate.

What does the text describe as the primary reason for people becoming serfs by the 16th century in Russia?

By the 16th century, the primary reason individuals became serfs in Russia was owing to poverty. This suggests that economic hardship increasingly drove people into unfree labor conditions.

What did the 'Domostroy', an advice book from the Tsardom of Russia era, suggest about managing slaves?

The 'Domostroy', an advice book from the Tsardom of Russia, advised slave owners on the importance of choosing slaves with good character and ensuring they were properly provided for. It also noted that laws forbade slave owners from freeing slaves during times of famine, to avoid the responsibility of feeding them, thus keeping slaves with their owning families for extended periods.

How did Peter the Great reform the status of household slaves in Russia in 1723?

In 1723, Peter the Great converted household slaves into house serfs. This administrative change integrated former slaves into the existing serfdom system, affecting their legal status and obligations.

When did the government of Tsar Feodor III formally convert agricultural slaves into serfs?

The government of Tsar Feodor III formally converted Russian agricultural slaves into serfs in 1679. This was an earlier step in the process of integrating slave populations into the broader system of serfdom.

Which indigenous peoples of Siberia practiced slavery, and how did Russian conquest impact this practice?

Indigenous peoples of Siberia, notably the Yakuts and Buryats of Eastern Siberia, practiced slavery on a smaller scale. Following the Russian conquest of Siberia in the 16th and 17th centuries, Russians began enslaving natives, often involving them in military operations and Cossack raids. Native women were frequently taken as concubines, mortgaged, or traded for commercial profit.

Why did the Russian government initially oppose the conversion of Siberian natives to Christianity?

The Russian government generally opposed the conversion of Siberian natives to Christianity because conversion would free them from paying the 'yasak,' a fur tribute. This policy aimed to ensure a continued supply of furs for the state.

What happened when local Russian owners in Siberia wanted their native slaves to convert to Christianity?

When the government decreed that non-Christian slaves were to be freed, local Russian owners of slaves petitioned for their slaves to convert to Christianity. This often involved forced conversions, as the rule stipulated that a native convert became a serf of the converter, thus maintaining a form of servitude.

What did a voyevoda report in 1712 regarding Cossacks and native slaves in Yakutsk?

In 1712, a voyevoda reported that 'there is hardly a Cossack in Yakutsk who does not have natives as slaves.' This statement indicates the widespread practice of slavery among Cossacks in the Yakutsk region of Siberia.

What was the 'Great Wrath' in Swedish Finland, and what were its consequences regarding slavery?

The 'Great Wrath' refers to the period of Russian invasion and occupation of the Swedish province of Finland between 1714 and 1721. During this time, atrocities included the abduction and enslavement of people by the Russian military. Some of these individuals were trafficked to Persia and the Middle East, where blonde people were considered exotic. It is estimated that between 20,000 and 30,000 people were abducted, and about a quarter of Finnish farmhouses were left empty by the end of the occupation.

How did Russian soldiers engage in slave trading during the Great Northern War (1700-1721)?

During the Great Northern War, Russian soldiers were permitted to capture and sell war captives. They seized many Livonians, Finns, and other civilians from Swedish provinces, selling them into slavery. Some of these captives ended up in the Black Sea slave trade and were trafficked as far as Persia.

What role did the Swedish ambassador Thomas Funck play in Constantinople concerning Swedish captives?

From June 1710, the Swedish ambassador Thomas Funck made trips to the slave market in Constantinople to buy Swedish Empire citizens who had been captured by Russian soldiers. His legation priest documented several purchases, including a carpenter's daughter, a captain's wife, and an entire Livonian family. While many were freed, limited funds meant many others were purchased by private buyers and remained enslaved in the Ottoman Empire.

When did the Russian conquest of the Caucasus lead to the abolition of slavery in that region?

The Russian conquest of the Caucasus led to the abolition of slavery by the 1860s. This marked a significant shift in the region's social and legal structures.

What was the Khanate of Khiva known for regarding slavery in the 17th to 19th centuries?

The Khanate of Khiva was known for operating a notorious slave market that dealt in captured Russian and Persian slaves. This market was a central hub for the slave trade in the region from the 17th century until the 19th century.

What concerning practice involving Russian captives was reported in the Northern Caucasus at the beginning of the 21st century?

At the beginning of the 21st century, it was reported that the Chechen and Ingush people kept Russian captives as slaves or in slave-like conditions in the mountains of the Northern Caucasus. This indicates a continuation of historical patterns of enslavement in the region.

What issues are reported regarding internal and foreign migrants in Dagestan concerning forced labor?

In Dagestan, internal migrants from poorer Russian regions and foreign migrants are reportedly trafficked, sometimes through drugging and kidnapping. They are then forced to work against their will, particularly in brick factories and small farms. The status of many migrant workers as irregular migrants makes them especially vulnerable to modern slavery.

What recent reports have highlighted human trafficking and slavery involving Uzbek nationals in Russia?

Recent reports from 2009 to 2012 have identified human trafficking and slavery of Uzbek nationals within contemporary Russian society. These reports underscore the ongoing challenges related to modern slavery in the country.

What image is associated with the routes used for the slave trade through Slavic territories in the 8th-11th centuries?

The provided text includes a figure illustrating the routes through Slavic territories used for the slave trade from the 8th to 11th centuries. These routes include the Volga trade route from the Vikings to the Muslim Middle East (shown in red) and the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, connecting to the Byzantines (shown in blue), along with other trade routes (shown in orange).

What does the image caption suggest about Peter I of Russia and Swedish citizens during the Great Northern War?

The image caption depicts Peter I of Russia pacifying his marauding troops after taking Narva in 1704. It notes that many Swedish citizens were captured by Russian soldiers on this occasion and subsequently sold into slavery, with some ending up in the Crimean slave trade.

What was the status of 'kholopy' in Kievan Rus' concerning their masters' lands before the late 10th century?

Before the late 10th century in Kievan Rus', the 'kholopy' represented a majority among the servants who worked lords' lands. This indicates a significant presence of unfree labor tied to agricultural production during that early period.

What reforms by Alexei Mikhailovich and Peter the Great affected the power of masters over serfs?

Reforms initiated by Alexei Mikhailovich and Peter the Great in the centuries following the late 16th century began to degrade the absolute power that masters held over their serfs. These reforms marked a gradual shift away from the most stringent forms of control.

What was the estimated proportion of slaves in Crimea, and what historical practice persisted into the 18th century?

It is estimated that about 75% of the population in Crimea consisted of slaves. The practice of Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands, a significant source of these slaves, continued into the 18th century.

What did the Russian government decree regarding non-Christian slaves in Siberia?

The Russian government decreed that non-Christian slaves in Siberia were to be freed. This decree was partly motivated by the desire to ensure that natives continued to pay the 'yasak,' or fur tribute, which they would be exempt from if they converted to Christianity.

What was the estimated number of people abducted from Finland during the 'Great Wrath' (1714-1721)?

It is estimated that between 20,000 and 30,000 people were abducted from Finland during the 'Great Wrath' (1714-1721). Many of these individuals were enslaved and trafficked, with some ending up in the Crimean slave trade.

How many people were taken to serve as slave laborers during the construction of Saint Petersburg?

Between 10,000 and 20,000 people were taken to serve as slave laborers during the construction of Saint Petersburg. This highlights the immense human cost associated with major state projects during that era.

What happened to many women and children abducted from Finland during the Russian occupation (1714-1721)?

Many women and children abducted from Finland during the Russian occupation (1714-1721) were taken as serfs or sex slaves by Russian officers. Some of these individuals were subsequently sold into the Crimean slave trade, indicating a brutal and multifaceted system of exploitation.

What was the primary consequence of the Russian conquest of Central Asian khanates like Bukhara and Khiva regarding slavery?

Following the Russian conquest of Central Asian khanates such as Bukhara, Samarkand, and Khiva by the 1870s, slavery was abolished in these regions. This marked the end of long-standing slave markets, like the one in Khiva, which had operated from the 17th to the 19th century.

What does the text state about the status of migrant workers in Russia concerning modern slavery?

The text states that many of Russia's migrant workers are irregular migrants. This status makes them particularly vulnerable to modern slavery, as they may lack legal protections and face greater risks of exploitation, trafficking, and forced labor.

What historical period is depicted by the map showing trade routes through Slavic territories?

The map illustrates trade routes through Slavic territories used for the slave trade during the 8th to 11th centuries. These routes connected Vikings, the Muslim Middle East, and Byzantines, highlighting the extensive reach of early slave commerce.

What was the significance of George's Day in Autumn in relation to serf movement in Russia?

George's Day in Autumn was a specific day of the year traditionally designated for serfs to freely switch the land they were living on, and therefore potentially switch their masters. The prohibition of this movement in the late 16th century significantly restricted serf mobility.

What was the estimated number of people abducted from Finland during the 'Great Wrath' and where did some end up?

It is estimated that between 20,000 and 30,000 people were abducted from Finland during the 'Great Wrath' (1714-1721). Some of these individuals were trafficked via Russia and the Crimean slave trade to Persia and the Middle East, where their lighter features were considered exotic.

What was the approximate percentage of the population in Crimea that consisted of slaves?

Approximately 75% of the population in Crimea consisted of slaves. This high proportion underscores the centrality of slavery to the Crimean economy and society during certain historical periods.

What did the Russian government decree regarding non-Christian slaves in Siberia after its conquest?

After the Russian conquest of Siberia, the government decreed that non-Christian slaves were to be freed. This policy aimed to encourage conversion to Christianity, though it also led to complex situations where owners forced conversions to maintain servitude.

What was the primary purpose of the 'yasak' in Russian Siberia?

The 'yasak' was a fur tribute imposed by the Russian government on indigenous peoples in Siberia. The government's policies regarding slavery and conversion were influenced by the need to ensure the continued collection of this valuable tribute.

What happened to many Swedish citizens captured during the Great Northern War?

During the Great Northern War, many Swedish citizens, including Livonians and Finns, were captured by Russian soldiers and sold into slavery. Some of these captives were trafficked through the Crimean slave trade to markets in Constantinople and Persia.

What role did the Swedish ambassador play in Constantinople regarding captured Swedish citizens?

The Swedish ambassador in Constantinople actively worked to buy back Swedish Empire citizens who had been captured and sold into slavery. While successful in freeing some individuals, the limited funds meant many could not be redeemed and remained enslaved.

What was the estimated number of people enslaved for the construction of Saint Petersburg?

An estimated 10,000 to 20,000 people were subjected to slave labor for the construction of Saint Petersburg. This massive undertaking relied heavily on forced labor during its development.

What types of conditions did internal and foreign migrants face in Dagestan according to reports?

Internal and foreign migrants in Dagestan reportedly face trafficking, sometimes involving drugging and kidnapping, leading to forced labor in brick factories and small farms. Their status as irregular migrants makes them particularly vulnerable to these exploitative conditions.

Slavery In Russia Wiki: Russia's Chains: A Historical and Contemporary Examination of Unfreedom

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Historical Overview

Introduction to Russian Unfreedom

While chattel slavery as understood in Western contexts has not been a dominant feature in Russia since the adoption of Christianity in the 10th century, the institution of serfdom profoundly shaped Russian society for centuries. Serfdom, legally abolished in 1861, shared many characteristics with slavery, binding individuals to the land and its owner. Contemporary reports indicate that forms of illegal, slavery-like conditions persist, affecting marginalized populations.

Serfdom vs. Slavery

The Russian term krepostnoi krestyanin translates to "serf," denoting an unfree person tied to land, distinct from a slave who could be owned individually. However, the practical limitations on movement, labor obligations, and the sale of serfs with land mirrored aspects of slavery. The legal framework evolved, granting landowners increasing power over serfs, particularly by the late 16th century, culminating in the prohibition of movement on specific days, effectively solidifying their bondage.

Contemporary Estimates

According to the 2023 Global Slavery Index, approximately 1.89 million individuals, or 1.26% of the population, live in conditions considered illegal slavery under Russian law. This includes forced labor, forced prostitution, debt bondage, forced marriage, child exploitation, and penal labor, disproportionately affecting undocumented immigrants and marginalized groups, particularly from the Caucasus and former Soviet states.

The Institution of Serfdom

Evolution of Serfdom

In Kievan Rus' and the subsequent Grand Principality of Moscow, kholopy represented a significant unfree labor force. Individuals became kholopy through capture, self-sale, debt, criminal conviction, or marriage. Initially comprising a majority of land workers, the master's power over kholopy increased over centuries. Reforms by Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Peter the Great gradually altered these conditions, but the fundamental tie to the land persisted.

Household vs. Agricultural Serfs

By the 16th century, poverty was a primary driver for individuals becoming serfs, often serving as household servants. The Domostroy, a contemporary guide, advised on the proper treatment and selection of serfs. Slavery as an institution was formally converted into serfdom by Tsar Feodor III in 1679 for agricultural slaves, and Peter the Great extended this to household slaves in 1723. This conversion aimed to improve tax collection, as serfs were taxable, unlike slaves.

Emancipation

The institution of serfdom was finally abolished on February 19, 1861, by Tsar Alexander II's Emancipation Reform. State-owned serfs were emancipated in 1866. This reform marked a pivotal moment in Russian history, fundamentally altering the social and economic structure of the empire.

Slave Trade and Raids

Crimean-Nogai Raids

From the 15th century into the 18th century, East Slavic territories were subjected to frequent raids by the Golden Horde and later the Crimean Tatars. These raids resulted in the capture of thousands of inhabitants, who were then trafficked into the Crimean slave trade. Moscow itself was sacked multiple times, with captives sold into markets in Crimea and beyond. It is estimated that up to 75% of the Crimean population consisted of slaves at one point.

Baltic and Siberian Slave Trade

During the Great Northern War (1700-1721), Russian soldiers captured civilians from Swedish territories in Finland, Estonia, and Livonia. These captives, including children, were often sold into slavery, with some ending up in the Black Sea slave trade and Persia. In Siberia, indigenous groups like the Yakuts and Buryats practiced slavery on a smaller scale. Russian conquest led to the enslavement of natives, particularly women, who were traded for profit or used as concubines.

Trans-Regional Trafficking

Captured individuals, particularly from the Baltic regions, were sometimes sold in markets in Moscow. Swedish diplomats in Constantinople worked to ransom Swedish subjects captured by Russian soldiers, highlighting the extensive reach of these slave markets. The Russian government's policies regarding the conversion of native slaves in Siberia also reveal the complex interplay between tribute, religious conversion, and enslavement.

Regional Variations

Russia Proper

The historical trajectory of slavery and serfdom in Russia proper involved the gradual consolidation of power by landowners and the state over the unfree population. The distinction between slaves and serfs blurred over time, with legal reforms attempting to categorize and tax the labor force. The eventual abolition of serfdom in 1861 was a monumental, albeit complex, transition.

Baltic and Finnish Territories

During the period of Swedish rule and subsequent Russian conquest, the Baltic provinces and Finland experienced significant disruption. Slave raids by Russian soldiers during the Great Northern War led to the abduction and sale of many civilians. The Swedish ambassador's efforts to ransom captives in Constantinople underscore the international dimension of this trade.

Caucasus and Central Asia

The Russian conquest of the Caucasus and Central Asian khanates (Bukhara, Samarkand, Khiva) in the 19th century led to the abolition of existing slave systems by the 1860s and 1870s. However, historical accounts mention notorious slave markets, such as in the Khanate of Khiva, and instances of Russian captives being held in slave-like conditions in the Northern Caucasus.

The Baltic and Swedish Context

Great Northern War Captives

Between the 16th century and the end of the Great Northern War (1700-1721), Russian slave traders conducted raids into Eastern Finland, trafficking Finns and Karelians. During the war, Russian soldiers captured numerous civilians from Swedish provinces, including Finland and the Baltics. These captives were sold into slavery, with some reaching the Black Sea and Persian markets, valued for their exotic appearance.

Swedish Efforts at Ransom

The Swedish ambassador to Constantinople, Thomas Funck, undertook missions to purchase Swedish subjects from slave markets. Records detail the purchase of individuals, including women and children, using Swedish funds. Despite these efforts, the limited financial resources and the high cost of many captives meant that numerous individuals remained enslaved within the Ottoman Empire.

The "Great Wrath"

The Russian invasion and occupation of Swedish Finland, known as the "Great Wrath" (1714-1721), involved widespread atrocities, including the abduction and enslavement of tens of thousands of people. Many were trafficked via Russia to Persia and the Middle East. The occupation led to significant depopulation, with many farmhouses left empty and thousands forced into labor for projects like the construction of Saint Petersburg.

Contemporary Slavery in Russia

Vulnerable Populations

Modern slavery in Russia often involves internal migrants from poorer regions and foreign nationals, particularly from Central Asia and the Caucasus. These individuals are frequently trafficked, sometimes through drugging and kidnapping, and forced into labor in sectors like brick factories and agriculture, especially in regions like Dagestan.

Irregular Migration and Exploitation

The status of irregular migrants makes them particularly vulnerable to exploitation. Reports from 2009-2012 identified human trafficking and slavery involving Uzbek nationals. This vulnerability is exacerbated by factors such as language barriers, lack of legal status, and limited access to support systems, creating environments ripe for modern-day enslavement.

Legal Framework and Enforcement

While Russian law prohibits slavery-like conditions, the enforcement and prevalence of these practices remain significant concerns. The Global Slavery Index highlights the scale of the problem, indicating systemic issues that allow forced labor, prostitution, debt bondage, and other forms of involuntary servitude to persist, often targeting the most marginalized segments of society.

Scholarly References

Primary and Secondary Sources

The understanding of slavery and serfdom in Russia is built upon a foundation of historical chronicles, legal documents, and scholarly analyses. Contemporary research, including reports from organizations like the Global Slavery Index, provides crucial data on the persistence of modern slavery.

The following works were referenced in the compilation of this information:

Mee, Arthur; Hammerton, J.A.; Innes, Arthur D.; Harmsworth History of the World: Volume 7, 1907, Carmelite House, London; p. 5193.
Walk Free Foundation. "The Global Slavery Index 2023" (PDF).
The Full Collection of the Russian Annals, vol.13, SPb, 1904
"The Tatar Khanate of Crimea". www.allempires.com.
Supply of Slaves
"Gulliver". The Economist.
Historical survey > Slave societies
Michalon Lituanus, De Moribus Tartarorum, Lituanorum et Moschorum, Fragmina X, in Russia, seu Moscovia, itemque Tartaria (Leiden, 1630), 191
Richard Hellie, Slavery in Russia, 1450-1725 (1984)
Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, The Domostroi: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible
Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, The Domostroi: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible
Hellie, Richard (6 April 2009). "Slavery and serfdom in Russia". In Gleason, Abbott (ed.). A Companion to Russian History. Wiley Blackwell Companions to World History. Vol. 10. John Wiley & Sons (published 2009). p. 110.
Forsyth, James (1994). A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581–1990. Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69.
Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 237-238
Karolinska förbundets årsbok. (1991). Sverige: Karolinska förbundet. s. 7–10
Åberg, A. (2001). Karolinska kvinnöden. Sverige: Natur och Kultur.
Åberg, Alf, (in Swedish) Karolinska kvinnöden ['Fates of Carolinian Women'], Natur och kultur, Stockholm, 1999
Åberg, Alf (1991). Fångars elände: karolinerna i Ryssland 1700–1723. ['Misery of prisoners. The Carolinians in Russia in 1700–1723'] Stockholm: Natur & Kultur. Libris 7228808. ISBN 91-27-02743-0 (in Swedish)
Kustaa H. J. Vilkuna: Viha. Perikato, katkeruus ja kertomus isostavihasta., s. 120. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, 2005.
Tarkiainen, Kari: Moskovalainen. Ruotsi, Suomi ja Venäjä 1478–1721, s. 304–310. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2022.
Zetterberg, Seppo (toim.): Suomen historian pikkujättiläinen. Helsinki: WSOY, 1990.
Karonen, Pohjoinen suurvalta. Ruotsi ja Suomi 1521–1809
Helsingin Sanomatähdsbilaga 7/2009, s. 28–33
"Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women—Infanticide in Turkey," New York Daily Times, 6 August 1856". Chnm.gmu.edu.
"Georgia in the Beginning of Feudal Decomposition. (XVIII cen.)". Parliament.ge.
"Khiva, Bukhara, Khokand". Ferghana.ru.
Report of Josef Wolff 1843–1845
"Adventure in the East". Time. 6 April 1959.
"Slave of the Caucasus". BBC News. 15 March 2002.
Global Slavery Index
halfaman (2012-11-26). "The second report about slavery in Russia". Бомбила.
Sandford, Daniel (2012-11-16). "The ordeal of a Moscow 'shop slave'".
"Country Narrative - Russia". gvnet.com.
"Uzbeks Prey to Modern Slave Trade". Institute for War and Peace Reporting.

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References

Supply of Slaves

Historical survey > Slave societies

Richard Hellie, Slavery in Russia, 1450-1725 (1984)

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North â Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900â1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. NederlÃ¤nderna: Brill. p. 237-238

Ãberg, Alf, (in Swedish) Karolinska kvinnoÃ¶den ['Fates of Carolinian Women'], Natur och kultur, Stockholm, 1999

Ãberg, Alf (1991). FÃ¥ngars elÃ¤nde: karolinerna i Ryssland 1700â1723. ['Misery of prisoners. The Carolinians in Russia in 1700â1723'] Stockholm: Natur & Kultur. Libris 7228808. ISBN 91-27-02743-0 (in Swedish)

Kustaa H. J. Vilkuna: Viha. Perikato, katkeruus ja kertomus isostavihasta., s. 120. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, 2005. Teoksen verkkoversio.

Tarkiainen, Kari: Moskovalainen. Ruotsi, Suomi ja VenÃ¤jÃ¤ 1478â1721, s. 304â310. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2022. ISBN 978-951-858-576-6.

Zetterberg, Seppo (toim.): Suomen historian pikkujÃ¤ttilÃ¤inen. Helsinki: WSOY, 1990. ISBN 951-0-14253-0.

Report of Josef Wolff 1843â1845

Global Slavery Index

A full list of references for this article are available at the Slavery in Russia Wikipedia page

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This is not legal or historical consultancy. The information presented is based on data that may be subject to interpretation and may not encompass all nuances or recent developments. Always consult primary sources and peer-reviewed academic literature for comprehensive and definitive understanding.

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Russia's Chains

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Historical Overview 🏛️

📜 Introduction to Russian Unfreedom

⚖️ Serfdom vs. Slavery

📊 Contemporary Estimates

The Institution of Serfdom ⛓️

⏳ Evolution of Serfdom

🏠 Household vs. Agricultural Serfs

📜 Emancipation

Slave Trade and Raids ⚔️

🐎 Crimean-Nogai Raids

🚢 Baltic and Siberian Slave Trade

🌍 Trans-Regional Trafficking

Regional Variations 🗺️

🇷🇺 Russia Proper

❄️ Baltic and Finnish Territories

🏔️ Caucasus and Central Asia

The Baltic and Swedish Context 🚢

⚔️ Great Northern War Captives

🇸🇪 Swedish Efforts at Ransom

🔥 The "Great Wrath"

Contemporary Slavery in Russia ⏳

🏙️ Vulnerable Populations

🌐 Irregular Migration and Exploitation

⚖️ Legal Framework and Enforcement

Scholarly References 📚

📖 Primary and Secondary Sources

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice Regarding Content

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Historical Overview

Introduction to Russian Unfreedom

Serfdom vs. Slavery

Contemporary Estimates

The Institution of Serfdom

Evolution of Serfdom

Household vs. Agricultural Serfs

Emancipation

Slave Trade and Raids

Crimean-Nogai Raids

Baltic and Siberian Slave Trade

Trans-Regional Trafficking

Regional Variations

Russia Proper

Baltic and Finnish Territories

Caucasus and Central Asia

The Baltic and Swedish Context

Great Northern War Captives

Swedish Efforts at Ransom

The "Great Wrath"

Contemporary Slavery in Russia

Vulnerable Populations

Irregular Migration and Exploitation

Legal Framework and Enforcement

Scholarly References

Primary and Secondary Sources

Teacher's Corner

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Gamer's Corner

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References

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