How is superstition generally defined by non-practitioners?

Superstition is defined by non-practitioners as any belief or practice considered irrational or supernatural, often attributed to fate, magic, perceived supernatural influence, or fear of the unknown. It commonly encompasses beliefs and practices related to luck, amulets, astrology, fortune-telling, spirits, and the idea that future events can be predicted by unrelated prior events.

What is an alternative way the term 'superstition' is used in society?

The term 'superstition' is also used to refer to a religion not practiced by the majority of a given society, regardless of whether the prevailing religion contains alleged superstitions. Additionally, antireligious individuals may apply the term to all religions, viewing them as inherently superstitious.

How do modern definitions of superstition often characterize these beliefs?

Modern definitions commonly describe superstitions as irrational beliefs that contradict scientific understanding of the world. Stuart Vyse suggests their presumed mechanism of action is inconsistent with physical laws, while Jane Risen adds that these beliefs are not just scientifically incorrect but impossible. Other dictionaries like the Oxford English Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, and Cambridge Dictionary also describe them as 'irrational, unfounded,' or 'sans grounding in human reason or scientific knowledge.'

What additional criterion does Stuart Vyse propose for defining superstitions?

Beyond being irrational and culturally dependent, Stuart Vyse proposes that superstitions must be instrumental, meaning the person holding the belief expects an actual effect, such as an increased chance of winning a prize. This distinguishes them from practices where participants only expect entertainment, as a superstition implies a desired outcome.

How does the concept of 'superstition' vary across cultures and time, according to Stuart Vyse and Dale Martin?

Both Stuart Vyse and Dale Martin argue that what is considered superstitious is culturally and temporally dependent. Vyse states that if a culture has not adopted science as its standard, what others call magic or superstition is more accurately its local science or religion. Martin notes that superstitions are often seen as out of place in modern times, influenced by modern science's views on rationality, and persist as remnants of older popular beliefs and practices.

In what ways are religious practices sometimes labeled as superstitious?

Religious practices that deviate from commonly accepted religions within a culture, or new practices introduced into an established religious community, can be labeled as superstitious in an attempt to exclude them. Furthermore, an excessive display of devoutness has often been characterized as superstitious behavior, implying an irrational or unnecessary devotion.

How was the Latin term *superstitio* understood in antiquity by Greek and Roman polytheists?

In antiquity, the Latin term *superstitio*, similar to the Greek *deisidaimonia*, was associated with exaggerated ritual and a credulous attitude towards prophecies. Greek and Roman polytheists viewed it as an excessive fear of the gods, akin to a slave fearing a cruel and capricious master, contrasting with their own model of relations with deities based on political and social terms.

What distinction did Cicero make regarding superstition and religion?

Cicero contrasted *superstitio* with the mainstream religion of his era, stating, 'One does not destroy religion by destroying superstition.' This implies that he saw superstition as an excessive or unreasonable form of religious belief, distinct from *religio*, which he considered proper and reasonable awe of the gods.

How did Diderot's 18th-century *Encyclopédie* define superstition?

Diderot's 18th-century *Encyclopédie* defined superstition as 'any excess of religion in general' and specifically linked it with paganism, suggesting it was an overzealous or misdirected form of religious practice.

What was Martin Luther's perspective on the papacy in relation to superstition?

In his 1520 *Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church*, Martin Luther referred to the papacy as 'that fountain and source of all superstitions' and accused popes of superstition, suggesting they surpassed others only in violence, intrigue, and superstition. This was a strong critique of the Catholic Church during the Reformation.

How does the *Catechism of the Catholic Church* view superstition?

The *Catechism of the Catholic Church* considers superstition sinful, describing it as 'a perverse excess of religion' and a demonstrated lack of trust in divine providence, thus violating the first of the Ten Commandments. It clarifies that attributing magical importance to otherwise lawful practices or the efficacy of prayers to mere external performance without interior disposition constitutes superstition, as true faith requires inner disposition.

The source material references a November 1941 issue of *Weird Tales*.

The source material references a November 1941 issue of *Weird Tales*, which featured examples of various superstitions and taboos, illustrating how such beliefs were depicted in popular culture.

What are the three main categories of superstitions according to Dieter Harmening's 1979 book *Superstitio*?

Dieter Harmening's 1979 book *Superstitio* categorizes superstitions into three main types: magic, divination, and observances. These classifications help to organize and understand the diverse forms that superstitious beliefs and practices can take.

What are the sub-categories of 'observances' in Harmening's classification, and what do they include?

The 'observances' category subdivides into 'signs' and 'time.' The 'time' sub-category includes temporal prognostics like dog days, Egyptian days, year prognoses, and lunaries, which are beliefs about the influence of specific dates or periods. The 'signs' category covers omens such as specific animal behaviors (e.g., bird calls, horse neighing), comet sightings, or dreams, which are interpreted as indicators of future events.

How do the levels of participant involvement differ across Harmening's categories of superstition, according to László Sándor Chardonnens?

According to László Sándor Chardonnens, the 'observation' category requires an observer to interpret signs without active participation. The 'divination' category requires a participant to actively engage in a given action to reveal what is to be observed. The 'magic' category demands a participant who must follow a specific protocol to influence the future. These categories represent increasing stages of participation and knowledge, from passive interpretation to active manipulation.

What is 'prognostication' in the context of superstition, as defined by Chardonnens?

Chardonnens defines 'prognostication' as the component of superstition that anticipates knowledge of the future through the systematic application of a given ritual and order. He places it conceptually between observation and divination, with temporal prognostics (predictions based on time) being the most frequent form.

Why is the term 'superstition' often considered pejorative, and what alternative term is used in folkloristics?

The term 'superstition' generally carries a negative connotation, expressing a pejorative view. In folkloristics, items commonly referred to as superstitions are instead called 'folk belief' to avoid this judgmental aspect and to study them as cultural phenomena without inherent negative bias.

What criticism does László Sándor Chardonnens offer regarding the *Oxford English Dictionary's* definitions of superstition?

László Sándor Chardonnens criticizes the *Oxford English Dictionary's* definitions for passing value judgments and attributing superstition to 'fear and ignorance,' arguing that this does not adequately represent the elaborate systems of superstitions. He also notes that the OED's religious element implies a belief in a higher power on the part of the dictionary's compiler, suggesting a bias.

How do subjective perceptions influence what is considered a superstition, according to Richard Webster and Dale Martin?

Richard Webster's *The Encyclopedia of Superstitions* highlights that people often hold individual subjective perceptions, leading them to label the beliefs of others as superstitious. Historically, Constantine considered paganism a superstition, while Tacitus viewed Christianity as a 'pernicious superstition.' Martin Luther and Saul of Tarsus also considered anything not centered on Christ to be superstitious. Dale Martin further emphasizes that these differences become more apparent when moving between cultures, as what is rational in one context may be irrational in another.

What is the etymological origin of the Latin word *superstitio*?

The Latin word *superstitio* is clearly formed from the verb *super-stare*, meaning 'to stand over, stand upon; survive.' Its original intended sense is debated, with interpretations including 'standing over a thing in amazement or awe,' or suggesting an 'excess' of religious scrupulousness or over-ceremoniousness in rites, or even the 'survival' of old, irrational religious habits.

How did the meaning of *superstitio* evolve in Classical Latin?

In Classical Latin, as seen in the works of Livy and Ovid, *superstitio* began to be used in a pejorative sense, referring to an excessive fear of the gods or an unreasonable religious belief. This contrasted with *religio*, which signified proper and reasonable awe of the gods, establishing a clear distinction between acceptable and unacceptable religious practices.

How did early Christian writers view Roman and Pagan cults in relation to superstition?

Early Christian writers regarded all Roman and Pagan cults as superstitious, believing they involved the worship of false gods, fallen angels, and demons. This Christian perspective led to almost all forms of magic being described as types of superstition, consolidating a negative view of non-Christian practices.

What did B.F. Skinner's 1948 pigeon experiment suggest about the origins of superstitious behavior?

In his 1948 article, B.F. Skinner described pigeons exhibiting what appeared to be superstitious behavior, such as making turns or swinging their heads, ritualistically attempting to receive food from a dispenser that was programmed to release food at set intervals regardless of their actions. Skinner proposed this as an explanation for the nature of superstitious behavior in humans, suggesting it arises from accidental reinforcement where a random action is coincidentally followed by a reward.

How has Skinner's concept of reinforcement schedules been applied to explain human superstitious behavior, despite challenges to his original pigeon experiment interpretation?

Despite challenges to Skinner's initial interpretation, his concept of the reinforcement schedule, particularly the 'partial reinforcement effect,' has been used to explain human superstitious behavior. This effect suggests that when an individual performs an action expecting reinforcement, and it is not consistently forthcoming, it can create a sense of persistence, making the behavior highly resistant to extinction, even if it's not truly causal.

From an evolutionary/cognitive perspective, why might natural selection favor the generation of 'superstitious' associations?

From an evolutionary/cognitive perspective, natural selection might favor a tendency to generate weak or overgeneralized associations (heuristics) because a strong survival advantage to making correct associations could outweigh the negatives of also making many incorrect, 'superstitious' associations. This suggests that a propensity for pattern recognition, even if sometimes flawed, could be beneficial for survival by promoting caution or beneficial actions.

What is 'Magical Thinking' in the context of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), and how does it relate to superstition?

'Magical Thinking' is a manifestation of OCD where individuals believe that if they do not perform a certain compulsion, something bad will happen to themselves or others. This form of OCD is often linked to superstition, particularly in people with religious backgrounds or those raised in cultures that believe in magic and rituals, leading to ritualistic behaviors and avoidance of 'unlucky' things, or adherence to 'lucky' items.

How does Jane Risen's theory explain superstitions using dual-process models of reasoning?

Jane Risen's theory proposes that superstitions are intuitions that people recognize as incorrect but acquiesce to when they arise as an intuitive assessment of a situation. This view draws on dual-process models of reasoning, suggesting superstitions are the output of 'System 1' (fast, intuitive) reasoning that are not corrected by 'System 2' (slow, analytical) even when detected, leading to a conscious acceptance of an acknowledged irrational belief.

How do people generally perceive the influence of superstitions on events?

People tend to believe that superstitions influence events by altering the likelihood of existing possible outcomes, rather than by creating entirely new outcomes. For example, a lucky ritual in sports is thought to increase an athlete's chance of performing at their best, not to enhance their inherent ability, but rather to maximize their potential within existing capabilities.

According to Stuart Vyse, what is the actual benefit of superstitious rituals, if not 'real magic'?

Stuart Vyse suggests that while there is 'no real magic' in superstitious rituals, performing a ritualistic sequence before a high-pressure activity can reduce stress and thereby improve performance. He states that 'any old ritual will do,' implying the psychological benefit comes from the calming effect of the ritual itself, not its specific superstitious content or supposed magical properties.

Under what two circumstances are people most likely to attribute events to supernatural causes?

People are most likely to attribute events to supernatural or superstitious causes under two circumstances: first, if the event is unlikely or surprising, which stems from an 'effectance motivation' to gain a sense of control over their environment; and second, if the event is negative, a phenomenon known as 'negative agency bias,' where negative outcomes are more readily attributed to external, often supernatural, agents.

Can you provide an example of 'negative agency bias' in attributing events to supernatural causes?

An example of 'negative agency bias' is seen with Boston Red Sox fans who attributed their team's 86-year failure to win the World Series to the 'curse of the Bambino' after Babe Ruth was traded. However, when the team finally won in 2004, their success was attributed to the team's skill and management, not the lifting of a curse, demonstrating a bias towards supernatural explanations for negative events.

How do superstitions function in consumer behavior, according to John C. Mowen et al.?

According to John C. Mowen et al., superstitions serve as a heuristic tool that influences a variety of consumer behaviors. Trait superstitions can predict beliefs in astrology or common negative superstitions, and a general proneness to superstition can lead to behaviors like gambling, participating in promotional games, investing in stocks, keeping good-luck charms, and exhibiting sports fanship, as people seek to influence outcomes through these beliefs.

What is the estimated economic impact of superstitions related to Friday the 13th?

It has been estimated that between $700 million and $800 million are lost every Friday the 13th due to people's refusal to travel, purchase major items, or conduct business, highlighting the significant economic impact of this particular superstition on commerce and productivity.

How did the ancient Greek historian Polybius view superstition in the context of the Roman Empire?

The ancient Greek historian Polybius, in his *Histories*, used the word 'superstition' to explain that such belief maintained the cohesion of the Roman Empire, functioning as an *instrumentum regni*, meaning a tool of governance or statecraft. He believed it was strategically employed to ensure social order and stability.

What role did classical era philosophers like Lucretius and Cicero play in the opposition to superstition?

In the classical era, philosophers like Lucretius, with his poem *De rerum natura*, and Cicero, with his work *De natura deorum*, actively debated the existence of gods and developed opposition to superstition. Cicero notably distinguished *superstitio* (excessive fear of the gods) from *religio* (proper awe), arguing that only superstition, not religion, should be abolished, advocating for a more rational approach to divine matters.

How did the perception of God's influence on world events change from the Middle Ages to the Age of Enlightenment?

During the Middle Ages, the idea of God's influence on world events was largely undisputed, even leading to practices like trials by ordeal. However, with the rediscovery of classical works during the Renaissance and subsequent scientific advancements, a more rationalistic perspective emerged, leading to a steadily increasing disbelief in superstition, which became a central theme of the Age of Enlightenment, emphasizing reason over blind faith.

Who was the first philosopher to publicly criticize superstition in written form during the Age of Enlightenment?

Baruch Spinoza was the first philosopher to publicly criticize superstition in written form, making him a key figure in the Age of Enlightenment's opposition to such beliefs. His criticisms contributed to the broader shift towards rationalism during that period.

What are some examples of regional superstitions rooted in specific cultural or environmental circumstances?

Regional superstitions are often rooted in local circumstances; for example, geckos are believed to have medicinal value in many Asian countries, including China. In China, Feng shui is a belief system about the negative effects of certain places, such as a room in the northwest corner of a house being 'very bad,' and the number 8 is considered lucky, influencing the housing market.

What is a common animal-related superstition in Western cultures?

In Western cultures, people are familiar with the omen of a black cat crossing one's path, which is widely believed to bring bad luck. This belief is a classic example of an animal-related superstition.

What is the superstition associated with the northern cardinal?

The northern cardinal is associated with receiving visits from heaven, according to old folklore. Its name is linked to cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church, and sightings of this symbolic bird are believed to indicate positivity and hope, as expressed in the quote 'Cardinals appear when Angels are near,' suggesting a spiritual connection.

What are some examples of numbers that hold superstitious significance, and what are the terms for their associated fears?

Certain numbers hold superstitious significance, leading to practices like omitting specific floors in buildings. Triskaidekaphobia is the fear of the number 13. Tetraphobia is the avoidance of the digit 4 in East Asian nations, as it can be translated as 'death' or 'die.' Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia is the fear of the number 666, known as the number of the beast in the biblical Book of Revelation.

What are some objects commonly associated with superstitions?

Many objects are tied to superstitions, such as a rabbit's foot, which was carried for luck during the Great Depression. In parts of Indonesia, *tetek melek* masks made of coconut palm fronds were hung in doorways during the Coronavirus pandemic to keep occupants safe. Breaking a mirror is widely believed to bring seven years of bad luck, and horseshoes are considered lucky, with debate over whether their ends should point up or down to 'catch' or 'pour' luck.

What is the superstition surrounding brooms in China?

In China, brooms have several superstitions attached to them, including the belief that using a broom within three days of the New Year will sweep away good luck. This highlights how everyday objects can acquire symbolic meaning within cultural beliefs.

What are some common superstitious actions practiced in Western cultures?

Common superstitious actions in Western cultures include not walking under a ladder, knocking on wood for good luck, throwing salt over one's shoulder after a spill to ward off bad luck, and not opening an umbrella indoors, which is often believed to bring misfortune.

What is the origin of the superstition about not opening an umbrella indoors?

The superstition about not opening an umbrella indoors has practical origins. In 18th-century London, umbrellas had metal spokes and clumsy spring mechanisms, making them a 'veritable hazard to open indoors' and potentially causing injury or damage. This practical concern evolved into a belief about bad luck.

How does the idiom 'break a leg' relate to superstition in performing arts?

'Break a leg' is a typical English idiom used in theatre and other performing arts to wish a performer good luck. It is an ironic or non-literal saying of uncertain origin, commonly said to actors and musicians before they go on stage or audition, as directly wishing 'good luck' was once considered bad luck itself. Professional dancers, however, traditionally use the French word 'merde' for the same purpose.

What is the practical origin of the rail safety superstition involving blowing left and right?

A rail safety superstition involves blowing briefly left and right before crossing rail tracks for safe travels. This action has a practical origin, as it mimics the act of looking both ways before crossing, which is a crucial safety measure to avoid accidents, and over time became ritualized as a superstitious practice.

Superstition Wiki: The Enigma of Belief: A Scholarly Inquiry into Superstition's Enduring Influence

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Overview Superstition?

Defining the Irrational

Superstition refers to any belief or practice considered by non-practitioners as irrational or supernatural. It is often attributed to fate or magic, perceived supernatural influence, or a fundamental fear of the unknown. Common manifestations include beliefs and practices surrounding luck, amulets, astrology, fortune-telling, spirits, and certain paranormal entities, particularly the conviction that future events can be predicted by specific, unrelated prior occurrences.^[1]^[2]

Cultural Relativity of Belief

The very notion of what constitutes "superstitious" is inherently fluid, varying significantly across different cultures and historical epochs. As Stuart Vyse posits, if a culture has not yet embraced scientific methodology as its primary standard for understanding the world, what might be labeled as magic or superstition is, in fact, the prevailing local science or religious framework.^[3] Dale Martin further elaborates that such beliefs are often perceived as anachronistic in modern contexts, persisting as vestiges of older popular beliefs and practices, influenced by contemporary scientific paradigms of rationality.^[9]

Instrumental Expectations

Beyond being irrational and culturally dependent, superstitions typically possess an instrumental quality. Individuals holding these beliefs genuinely anticipate a tangible effect, such as an increased probability of winning a prize or avoiding misfortune. This distinguishes them from practices where participants merely seek entertainment or social engagement, highlighting a perceived causal link, however illogical, between the superstitious act and its desired outcome.^[3]

History & Evolution

Ancient Roots & Roman Scorn

In antiquity, the Latin term superstitio and its Greek counterpart deisidaimonia were associated with exaggerated ritualism and an uncritical acceptance of prophecies.^[14]^[8] Roman polytheists, who viewed their relationship with the gods through political and social lenses, often disdained individuals who constantly feared the gods, likening them to slaves trembling before a cruel master. This "fear of the gods" was precisely what Romans understood as "superstition."^[1] Cicero, for instance, explicitly contrasted superstitio with the mainstream religion of his era, asserting that "One does not destroy religion by destroying superstition."^[15]

Medieval & Reformation Perspectives

The 18th-century Encyclopédie by Diderot defined superstition as "any excess of religion in general," specifically linking it to paganism.^[16] During the Reformation, Martin Luther, in his 1520 work Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, vehemently accused the papacy of being "that fountain and source of all superstitions," criticizing the popes for their perceived excesses.^[17] The current Catechism of the Catholic Church, conversely, frames superstition as a sin, denoting "a perverse excess of religion" and a lack of trust in divine providence, thereby violating the First Commandment.^[1]

Enlightenment & Modern Critique

The rediscovery of classical texts during the Renaissance, coupled with burgeoning scientific advancements, fostered a growing skepticism towards superstitious beliefs. This period saw the emergence of a more rationalistic approach to exegesis. Opposition to superstition became a cornerstone of the Age of Enlightenment, with philosophers like Baruch Spinoza publicly challenging these beliefs, marking a pivotal shift in intellectual thought.^[54] The Roman Empire itself had previously enacted laws condemning those who incited excessive religious fear, demonstrating an early recognition of the potential societal impact of such beliefs.^[52]

Classify Superstition

Harmening's Categories

Dieter Harmening's 1979 work, Superstitio, provides a structured categorization of superstitions into three primary types: magic, divination, and observances.^[18] These categories delineate different levels of engagement and perceived influence over future events.

Observances: This category further divides into "signs" and "time."
- Signs: Involve interpreting natural phenomena or occurrences, such as particular animal behaviors (e.g., bird calls, horse neighing), the sighting of comets, or the content of dreams. This typically requires an observer to interpret the signs, but not necessarily an active participant in their generation.^[2]^[19]
- Time: Constitutes temporal prognostics, such as observing specific days like "dog days," "Egyptian days," or relying on year prognoses and lunaries.^[2]
Divination: Requires a more active participant who engages in specific actions to reveal what is to be observed. Examples include judicial astrology, necromancy, haruspex (examining entrails), lot-casting, geomancy, aeromancy, and prophecy.^[2]
Magic: Characterized by its exceedingly hermetical and ritualistic nature. This category includes practices such as witchcraft, the creation of potions, incantations, and the use of amulets. Participants must follow a precise protocol to influence the future.^[2]

László Sándor Chardonnens notes that these three types of superstition demand increasing stages of participation and specialized knowledge, from passive observation to active ritualistic engagement.^[2]

Prognostication & Prophecy

Chardonnens defines "prognostication" as the element of superstition that anticipates knowledge of the future through the systematic application of a given ritual and order.^[2]^[20] This often occupies an intermediary space between mere observation and active divination, with temporal prognostics being particularly prevalent.^[2]^[21] Prophecy, a specific form of divination, encompasses various inspirations, from divine or infernal sources to "gecyndelic" (natural) or "wiglung" (lacking divine/infernal inspiration). The medieval church, recognizing the deep ties between religious experience and prophecy, often condoned certain forms of prophetic belief.^[2]^[23]

Critiques of Definition

The very act of labeling something as "superstition" often carries a pejorative connotation. In the field of folkloristics, such phenomena are more neutrally referred to as "folk belief."^[24] Critics, such as László Sándor Chardonnens, argue that definitions provided by sources like the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) often embed value judgments, attributing beliefs to "fear and ignorance" without adequately acknowledging the complex systems underlying many superstitions. Furthermore, the OED's denotations, according to Chardonnens, reflect a compiler's inherent belief in a higher power, rather than a purely objective analysis of religious elements as systems of observance.^[2]

Psychology of Superstition

Behavioral Origins

B.F. Skinner's seminal 1948 research on pigeons demonstrated what appeared to be superstitious behavior. Pigeons, subjected to intermittent food reinforcement, developed ritualistic actions (e.g., turning in circles, pendulum head swings) in an attempt to influence their feeding schedule, even though the food was dispensed independently of their actions.^[33] While Skinner's interpretation has faced challenges, his concept of reinforcement schedules remains crucial. The "partial reinforcement effect" explains how intermittent reinforcement makes behaviors highly resistant to extinction, fostering persistence in individuals even when expected outcomes are not consistently delivered.^[35]^[36]

Evolutionary & Cognitive Perspectives

From an evolutionary standpoint, natural selection may favor a tendency to form weak, overgeneralized associations or heuristics. The survival advantage of making correct associations, even if it leads to numerous incorrect "superstitious" ones, can outweigh the negatives.^[37] Furthermore, connections between Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and superstition, often termed "Magical Thinking," have been observed. Individuals with this form of OCD may perform compulsions or rituals to prevent perceived negative outcomes or to invite good luck, even while intellectually acknowledging the irrationality of their actions.^[40] Jane Risen's theory suggests superstitions are intuitive assessments (System 1 reasoning) that individuals recognize as incorrect but nonetheless acquiesce to, rather than actively correct, when they arise.^[4]

Mechanisms & Occurrence

Superstitious beliefs are generally understood to influence events by altering the likelihood of existing possible outcomes, rather than by creating entirely new ones. For instance, a lucky charm might be thought to enhance an athlete's peak performance, not to bestow new abilities.^[44] Research by Stuart Vyse indicates that while superstitious rituals do not possess inherent magic, the act of performing any ritualistic sequence can reduce stress and thereby improve performance in high-pressure situations, functioning as a calming mechanism.^[45]^[46] People are more prone to attribute events to supernatural causes when events are unlikely or negative, a phenomenon known as "negative agency bias." This desire for control often leads to supernatural explanations for surprising or adverse occurrences.^[47]^[48]>

Regional Beliefs

East Asian Traditions

Many superstitions are deeply embedded in regional and historical contexts, often influenced by religious beliefs and the natural environment. In China, for example, Feng Shui is a belief system positing that certain spatial arrangements or locations can have negative effects, such as a room in the northwest corner of a house being considered "very bad." Conversely, the number 8 is widely regarded as a "lucky number," leading to its disproportionate prevalence in the Chinese housing market.^[56]

Brazilian Fauna Folklore

Across various cultures, animals are frequently associated with omens and superstitions. In certain regions of Brazil, motorists actively avoid giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) crossing their path, believing it brings bad luck. This highlights how local wildlife can become integrated into a community's superstitious framework, influencing daily behaviors and perceptions of fortune.^[59]

Western Avian Omens

In Western folklore, the northern cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis) is often associated with receiving visits from heaven. Its vibrant red plumage, linked to cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church, imbues sightings of this bird with symbolic meaning, indicating positivity and hope. The popular adage, "Cardinals appear when Angels are near," encapsulates this belief, suggesting a spiritual connection and comforting presence.^[60]

Numbers & Objects

Aversions to Numbers

Specific numbers hold profound significance, often leading to widespread avoidance or preference. Triskaidekaphobia, the fear of the number 13, is so prevalent that many buildings omit the 13th floor from elevator panels.^[62] Similarly, tetraphobia, the fear of the number 4, is common in East Asian nations due to its phonetic similarity to the word "death." The biblical "number of the beast," 666, inspires hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia, a deep-seated fear of this particular digit.^[63]>

Lucky Charms & Protective Items

Throughout history, various objects have been imbued with superstitious power. During the Great Depression, carrying a rabbit's foot was a common practice, believed to bring good fortune.^[64] In parts of Indonesia during the COVID-19 pandemic, traditional homemade masks called tetek melek, crafted from coconut palm fronds, were hung in doorways as protective talismans.^[64]>

Omens of Misfortune

Conversely, certain objects are associated with bad luck. Breaking a mirror, for instance, is widely believed to bring seven years of misfortune, a superstition observed from ancient Rome to Northern India, leading to careful handling or even avoidance of mirrors.^{[64]>^[65] Horseshoes are generally considered lucky, though debate exists on whether their ends should point up (to catch luck) or down (to pour luck). Superstitious sailors historically nailed horseshoes to masts to ward off storms.^[66] In China, yarrow and tortoiseshell are lucky, while brooms carry superstitions, with using one within three days of the New Year believed to sweep away good luck.^[67]>}

Actions & Rituals

Common Avoidances

Many superstitions manifest as specific actions or avoidances. In Western cultures, common examples include not walking under a ladder, knocking on wood for good luck, or throwing salt over one's shoulder after a spill. Opening an umbrella indoors is also widely considered bad luck.^[67]>

Theatrical Traditions

The idiom "break a leg" is a quintessential English expression used in theatre to wish a performer good luck, an ironic saying of uncertain origin, likely emerging in the United States in the 1920s or 1930s.^[68] Among professional dancers, the traditional good luck wish is the French word "merde."^[69]>

Practical Origins

Some seemingly irrational superstitious actions have surprisingly practical origins. The admonition against opening an umbrella indoors, for instance, stemmed from the physical hazards posed by the clumsy, metal-spoked spring mechanisms of 18th-century London umbrellas.^[70] Similarly, the action of briefly blowing left and right before crossing rail tracks, believed to ensure safe travels, is a ritualized form of looking both ways, a practical safety measure.^[71]>

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The Enigma of Belief

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview Superstition? ❓

🤔 Defining the Irrational

🌐 Cultural Relativity of Belief

🎯 Instrumental Expectations

History & Evolution 📜

🏛️ Ancient Roots & Roman Scorn

⛪ Medieval & Reformation Perspectives

💡 Enlightenment & Modern Critique

Classify Superstition 분류

📚 Harmening's Categories

🔮 Prognostication & Prophecy

⚖️ Critiques of Definition

Psychology of Superstition 🧠

🔬 Behavioral Origins

🧬 Evolutionary & Cognitive Perspectives

📊 Mechanisms & Occurrence

Regional Beliefs 🌍

🇨🇳 East Asian Traditions

🇧🇷 Brazilian Fauna Folklore

🇺🇸 Western Avian Omens

Numbers & Objects 🔢

🚫 Aversions to Numbers

🍀 Lucky Charms & Protective Items

💔 Omens of Misfortune

Actions & Rituals 🚶‍♀️

🙅‍♀️ Common Avoidances

🎭 Theatrical Traditions

💡 Practical Origins

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Overview Superstition?

Defining the Irrational

Cultural Relativity of Belief

Instrumental Expectations

History & Evolution

Ancient Roots & Roman Scorn

Medieval & Reformation Perspectives

Enlightenment & Modern Critique

Classify Superstition

Harmening's Categories

Prognostication & Prophecy

Critiques of Definition

Psychology of Superstition

Behavioral Origins

Evolutionary & Cognitive Perspectives

Mechanisms & Occurrence

Regional Beliefs

East Asian Traditions

Brazilian Fauna Folklore

Western Avian Omens

Numbers & Objects

Aversions to Numbers

Lucky Charms & Protective Items

Omens of Misfortune

Actions & Rituals

Common Avoidances

Theatrical Traditions

Practical Origins

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice