By what unique method was the Republic of Texas admitted into the United States, and what number state did it become?

The Republic of Texas was the only state admitted into the United States by treaty and was subsequently admitted to the Union as the 28th state on December 29, 1845. This unique admission process involved a joint resolution of Congress, which bypassed the traditional treaty ratification process requiring a two-thirds Senate majority.

When did the Republic of Texas declare its independence from Mexico, and what was the initial US reaction to its annexation request?

The Republic of Texas declared its independence from the Republic of Mexico on March 2, 1836. In the same year, Texas applied for annexation to the United States, but the request was rejected by U.S. Secretary of State John Forsyth under President Andrew Jackson.

What were the primary reasons the U.S. political parties initially opposed the annexation of Texas?

The major U.S. political parties, the Democrats and Whigs, initially opposed Texas annexation primarily due to the volatile political climate surrounding pro- and anti-slavery controversies in Congress. They were concerned about admitting a vast slave-holding region and wished to avoid a war with Mexico, which had outlawed slavery and refused to recognize Texas's sovereignty.

How did President John Tyler pursue the annexation of Texas, and what was his stated motivation?

President John Tyler, seeking a base of support for his presidency, decided independently in 1843 to pursue Texas annexation. His official motivation was to counter suspected British diplomatic efforts aimed at emancipating slaves in Texas, which he believed would undermine slavery in the United States.

What role did James K. Polk play in the Texas annexation process, particularly concerning the 1844 presidential election?

James K. Polk ran on a pro-Texas Manifest Destiny platform in the 1844 presidential election. His victory over Henry Clay, who opposed annexation, signaled a shift in political favor towards admitting Texas into the Union.

How did the Senate vote on the Tyler-Texas treaty in June 1844, and what was the outcome?

The Senate voted on the Tyler-Texas treaty in June 1844 and rejected it by a significant margin, with a vote of 16 in favor and 35 against. The vote largely followed party lines, with Whigs opposing it almost unanimously and Democrats splitting but voting largely in favor.

What alternative method did President Tyler propose to Congress for annexing Texas after the treaty's defeat?

After the treaty's rejection, President Tyler urged Congress to pass his treaty using a joint resolution, which would require only simple majorities in each house, thereby avoiding the constitutional requirement of a two-thirds Senate majority.

What was the significance of the Adams-Onís Treaty regarding Texas's boundaries?

The Adams-Onís Treaty of February 22, 1819, established the southern boundaries of Texas at the Sabine and Red Rivers. This treaty legally extinguished American claims to Texas, although Texas remained an object of interest to American expansionists.

How did the Missouri crisis of 1819-1821 impact the views of Southern expansionists regarding Texas?

The Missouri crisis, which led to the Missouri Compromise, sharpened commitments to expansionism among the country's slaveholding interests. Some southerners, like Thomas Ritchie, predicted that if restricted in northern territories, the South would eventually need Texas for 'elbow room'.

What was the initial approach of Mexican authorities towards Anglo-American settlers in Texas, and how did it change?

Initially, Mexican authorities practiced salutary neglect towards Anglo-American settlers in Texas, allowing them to ignore laws regarding slavery and religion. However, after the Fredonian Rebellion in 1826, Mexico imposed new restrictions, outlawing slavery and halting American immigration, which led to increased tensions.

What events led to Texas declaring independence from Mexico in 1836?

Mexican authorities' imposition of new restrictions, including outlawing slavery and terminating American immigration, coupled with military occupation, sparked local uprisings. These tensions culminated in Texas conventions petitioning for redress, and ultimately, in 1835, Mexican President Santa Anna abolished self-government, prompting Texans to declare independence on March 2, 1836.

What was the outcome of the Battle of San Jacinto, and what agreement did Santa Anna sign afterward?

The Battle of San Jacinto, fought on April 20-21, 1836, resulted in the defeat of the Mexican army by Texas rebel forces led by Sam Houston. While held prisoner, Santa Anna signed an agreement for Texas independence, but the Mexican government refused to ratify it.

Why did President Andrew Jackson delay recognizing Texas's independence?

President Andrew Jackson delayed recognizing Texas's independence until the last day of his presidency to avoid raising the issue during the 1836 general election. Northern concerns about Texas potentially becoming multiple slave states and upsetting the congressional balance of power influenced his caution.

How did President Martin Van Buren view the annexation of Texas, and what action did he take regarding Texas's annexation proposal?

President Martin Van Buren considered Texas annexation a significant political liability that could empower the anti-slavery Whig opposition, especially if it provoked war with Mexico. He summarily rejected a formal annexation proposal from Texas minister Memucan Hunt Jr. in August 1837.

What was President Tyler's personal motivation for pursuing Texas annexation?

Texas annexation became a deeply personal obsession for President Tyler, who viewed the acquisition as the 'primary objective of his administration.' His advisors believed it would assure him a second term in office.

Who replaced Daniel Webster as Secretary of State under President Tyler, and what was his stance on Texas annexation?

Abel P. Upshur, a Virginia states' rights champion and ardent proponent of Texas annexation, replaced Daniel Webster as Secretary of State. This cabinet shift signaled Tyler's intent to pursue Texas annexation aggressively.

What intelligence did Duff Green report to Secretary Upshur regarding British involvement with Texas?

Duff Green reported to Secretary Upshur in July 1843 that he had discovered a 'loan plot' involving American abolitionists and British Foreign Secretary Lord Aberdeen. This plot allegedly aimed to provide funds to Texas in exchange for the emancipation of its slaves.

What was John C. Calhoun's role in the Tyler administration's push for Texas annexation?

John C. Calhoun, a pro-slavery Democrat, counseled Secretary Upshur that British designs on American slavery were real and required immediate action. After Upshur's death, Tyler appointed Calhoun as Secretary of State, valuing him as a strong advocate for annexation, though his involvement risked polarizing the debate.

What was Senator Robert J. Walker's argument in his influential letter regarding Texas annexation?

Senator Robert J. Walker argued that Texas could be constitutionally acquired and that its annexation would serve as a 'safety-valve.' He proposed that enslaved African-Americans could be 'diffused' southward, eventually emptying the United States of its slave population and appealing to northern whites' racial fears.

How did the Tyler-Texas treaty become public, and what was the public reaction?

The Tyler-Texas treaty, its associated correspondence, and the Packenham letter were leaked to the public shortly after Senate debates began. The documents appeared to confirm that the primary objective of Texas annexation was the preservation of slavery, causing a national outcry and strengthening anti-annexation forces.

What was the impact of the Tyler-Texas treaty leak on the 1844 presidential election?

The leak intensified hostility towards Tyler's agenda from both major parties. Leading presidential hopefuls Martin Van Buren (Democrat) and Henry Clay (Whig) publicly denounced the treaty, making Texas annexation and the Oregon dispute central issues of the election.

How did President Tyler influence the Democratic Party's nomination process in the 1844 election?

Tyler organized a third-party movement, threatening to siphon off pro-annexation Democratic voters. This maneuver pressured Democratic delegates to block anti-expansion candidate Martin Van Buren and nominate the pro-expansion James K. Polk instead.

What was the final vote count in the Senate when the Tyler-Texas annexation treaty was rejected?

The Tyler-Texas annexation treaty was rejected by the Senate with a vote of 16 in favor and 35 against on June 8, 1844. This outcome was largely along party lines, with Whigs overwhelmingly opposing it and Democrats split.

What constitutional procedure did President Tyler propose to annex Texas after the treaty's defeat in the Senate?

Following the treaty's rejection, Tyler proposed that Congress adopt a joint resolution. This procedure would allow for ratification with simple majorities in both the House and Senate, bypassing the two-thirds majority requirement for treaties.

What was the Brown-Foster House amendment, and how did it differ from the original Tyler-Texas treaty?

The Brown-Foster amendment, introduced by Southern Whigs, aimed to enhance slaveowner gains by allowing Texas to be divided into up to five states, with those south of the 36°30' parallel pre-authorized for slavery. This differed from the Tyler-Calhoun treaty, which provided for four states, three likely slave states, and omitted explicit mention of slavery.

What was Senator Thomas Hart Benton's proposed compromise for Texas annexation?

Senator Thomas Hart Benton proposed a resolution that made no reference to the free-slave apportionment of annexed Texas. Instead, it called for five bipartisan commissioners to resolve border disputes with Texas and Mexico and set conditions for the United States' acquisition of the Republic of Texas.

How did President-elect James K. Polk influence the Senate's decision on the Texas annexation resolution?

Polk advised Senate Democrats to unite under a dual resolution combining both the Benton and Brown versions of annexation. He assured supporters of both plans that he would administer their respective policies, effectively uniting Senate Democrats to pass the compromise measure.

On what date did President Tyler sign the joint resolution for annexing Texas, and what was the vote count in the House for the amended bill?

President Tyler signed the joint resolution for annexing Texas on March 1, 1845. The amended bill had previously been approved by the House of Representatives on January 25, 1845, by a vote of 120 to 98.

What action did President Tyler take on his last full day in office regarding the annexation offer to Texas?

On March 3, 1845, President Tyler dispatched an offer of annexation to the Republic of Texas via courier, exclusively under the terms of the Brown-Foster option of the joint house measure. He did this, with his cabinet's assent and Calhoun's urging, to improve the odds for immediate annexation, fearing Polk might reopen negotiations.

How did President Polk handle Tyler's final annexation offer to Texas upon taking office?

Upon taking office, President Polk conferred with his cabinet and decided to uphold Tyler's action, allowing the courier's offer to proceed to Texas. Polk's decision was motivated by a concern that protracted negotiations by US commissioners could expose annexation efforts to foreign interference.

When did Texas formally join the Union, and what event followed shortly after?

Texas formally joined the Union on February 19, 1846, relinquishing its sovereignty to the United States. The Mexican-American War began in April of that year, partly triggered by the U.S. military's positioning along the Rio Grande.

What was the primary border dispute between Texas and Mexico prior to annexation?

The primary border dispute was between the Republic of Texas, which claimed the Rio Grande as its border based on the Treaties of Velasco, and Mexico, which maintained the Nueces River as the border and did not recognize Texan independence.

How did President Polk's actions regarding the Texas border contribute to the outbreak of the Mexican-American War?

After Mexico refused to negotiate with envoy John Slidell, President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to garrison the southern border of Texas along the Rio Grande. Mexico viewed this military presence as a violation of its sovereignty, leading to preparations for war.

What precedent did the joint resolution method of Texas annexation set for future territorial acquisitions?

The joint resolution method used for Texas annexation, which bypassed treaty requirements for simple majority approval, set a precedent that was later applied to the annexation of the Republic of Hawaii in 1897.

What was the initial mapping of Texas territory by Spain, and when did this process begin?

Texas was first mapped by Spain starting in 1519. For over 300 years, Texas was part of the Spanish Empire, seized by conquistadores from its indigenous inhabitants.

What was the outcome of the negotiations between John Quincy Adams and Luis de Onís regarding the US-Spain border?

The negotiations between John Quincy Adams and Luis de Onís resulted in the Florida Purchase Treaty of February 22, 1819. This treaty excluded Spain from the lower Columbia River drainage basin but established southern boundaries at the Sabine and Red Rivers, legally extinguishing American claims to Texas.

What was the 'diffusion' theory proposed by John Tyler concerning slavery?

John Tyler's 'diffusion' theory suggested that by opening new territories like Missouri to slavery, slaveholders would transfer underutilized slaves westward. This would empty eastern states of bondsmen, potentially making emancipation feasible in the older South. This doctrine was later revived during the Texas annexation controversy.

How did Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821 affect its relationship with Texas and the United States?

After winning independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico's claims to Texas were not contested by the United States. However, both the Adams and Jackson administrations persistently sought to acquire Texas from Mexico, without success.

What was the economic situation in the Republic of Texas in the early 1840s that influenced its desire for annexation?

By the early 1840s, Texas's economic fortunes were declining due to a global oversupply causing a crash in cotton prices, its main export. This led to labor shortages, reduced tax revenue, large national debts, and a diminished Texas militia, making annexation more appealing.

What was the significance of Secretary of State Abel P. Upshur's communication with the U.S. Minister to Great Britain, Edward Everett?

Upshur's communication conveyed displeasure with Britain's anti-slavery stance and warned that British interference in Texas would be seen as interference with U.S. institutions. Upshur leaked this communique to inflame anti-British sentiments and rally support for annexation.

What was the 'safety-valve' theory as articulated by Senator Robert J. Walker in relation to Texas annexation?

Senator Walker's 'safety-valve' theory posited that Texas could serve as an outlet for enslaved African-Americans, allowing them to be 'diffused' southward. This, he argued, would gradually empty the United States of its slave population and alleviate racial tensions in the North.

How did the Tyler administration attempt to secure Senate ratification for the Texas annexation treaty?

President Tyler submitted the treaty to the Senate on April 22, 1844. Secretary of State Calhoun included the 'Packenham Letter,' which characterized slavery as a social blessing, intending to create a sense of crisis among Southern Democrats and unite the South in support of annexation.

What constitutional objections were raised in the House of Representatives regarding the annexation of Texas by joint resolution?

Constitutional objections included questions about whether both houses of Congress could constitutionally authorize the admission of territories, rather than states. Furthermore, it was argued that admitting Texas, an independent nation, as a state required a Senate-ratified treaty to settle its boundaries, debts, and public lands.

What was the political strategy behind the Brown-Foster House amendment concerning Texas annexation?

The Brown-Foster amendment was designed to portray Southern Whigs as stronger champions of slavery and the South than their Democratic counterparts. It also aimed to distinguish them from Northern Whigs who opposed slavery expansion, while simultaneously offering enhanced gains for slaveholders in Texas.

How did President Polk's administration handle the border dispute with Mexico after Texas's annexation?

After annexation, President Polk considered the Rio Grande the recognized border of Texas, despite Mexico's claim of the Nueces River. He deployed General Zachary Taylor to garrison this border, which Mexico viewed as a violation of its sovereignty, ultimately leading to the Mexican-American War.

What was the outcome of the Mexican-American War concerning the Texas border dispute?

Following the United States' victory in the Mexican-American War, Mexico ceded its claims to Texas through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This treaty formally accepted the Rio Grande as the border between Mexico and the United States.

What legal controversy surrounds the annexation of Texas, particularly concerning its method of admission?

The controversy stems from Congress approving Texas's admission as a state, rather than a territory, via simple majorities in both houses through a joint resolution. This method, championed by President Tyler, deviated from the constitutional requirement of a two-thirds Senate majority for treaties, which was the standard for acquiring lands from Native American tribes.

How did the annexation of Hawaii in 1898 relate to the Texas annexation precedent?

The annexation of Hawaii in 1898 followed the Texas precedent of using a joint resolution passed by simple majorities in Congress. This method was employed after a treaty for annexation failed to gain the necessary two-thirds Senate support, mirroring the strategy used for Texas.

What was the role of the 'safety-valve' theory in justifying Texas annexation to Northern audiences?

The 'safety-valve' theory, promoted by Senator Robert J. Walker, suggested that annexing Texas would allow for the diffusion of enslaved people southward. This appealed to Northern whites who feared the social and economic consequences of absorbing emancipated slaves into their own communities if the institution collapsed in the South.

What was the primary argument used by President Tyler to justify his administration's pursuit of Texas annexation?

Tyler argued that pursuing Texas annexation was essential for preserving the balance between state and national authority and protecting American institutions, including slavery. He believed that leaving Texas outside American jurisdiction would imperil the Union and that annexation would prevent sectional conflict.

What was the significance of the 'Packenham Letter' in the Senate debates over the Tyler-Texas treaty?

Authored by Secretary of State John C. Calhoun, the 'Packenham Letter' characterized slavery as a social blessing and framed Texas annexation as an emergency measure to safeguard the 'peculiar institution' from British interference. This letter was intended to provoke a crisis and unite Southern Democrats, but it ultimately contributed to the treaty's defeat by highlighting the pro-slavery agenda.

The Lone Star's Union

Forging Texas into America: A comprehensive examination of the historical, political, and diplomatic journey of Texas's admission into the United States.

Historical Context 📜 Political Landscape 🏛️

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

When you are ready...
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮

Historical Context

Spanish & Mexican Texas

For over three centuries, Texas was an integral part of the vast Spanish Empire, initially claimed following Spanish exploration in the early 16th century. The boundaries of this territory were formally delineated through negotiations between the United States and Spain, culminating in the Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819. This treaty, while establishing borders, also legally extinguished American claims to Texas, yet the region remained a focal point for American expansionist interests.

Early U.S. Interest

Even before the formal delineation of borders, figures like Thomas Jefferson recognized Texas's potential, anticipating its eventual acquisition. The Missouri crisis of 1819-1821 heightened these expansionist sentiments, particularly among slaveholding interests who foresaw Texas as a crucial territory for westward expansion and the perpetuation of slavery. Debates over the 36°30' parallel in the Louisiana Purchase foreshadowed the sectional conflicts that would later define the Texas annexation debate.

Mexican Sovereignty & Claims

Following Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821, both the United States administrations of John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson persistently sought to acquire Texas through diplomatic channels. Despite these efforts, Mexico maintained its claims, and the United States acknowledged Mexican sovereignty over the region. This persistent interest from the U.S. fueled Mexican concerns about losing control over its northern frontier.

Texas Settlement & Independence

Anglo-American Colonization

In the early 1820s, Mexican authorities invited Anglo-American settlers into Texas, primarily from the Southern United States, to populate the sparsely inhabited lands for cotton production. Under colonization laws, settlers received generous land grants. Stephen F. Austin played a pivotal role in managing these regional affairs, overseeing a population that was approximately 20% enslaved.

Shifting Mexican Policy

Initially governed with a degree of "salutary neglect," Mexican control over Texas began to tighten. Concerns over American influence and the Fredonian Rebellion led to new restrictions in 1829-1830, including the prohibition of slavery and the termination of American immigration. These measures, coupled with military occupation, ignited local resistance.

Declaration of Independence

In 1835, President Antonio López de Santa Anna abolished self-government in Texas, prompting the Texians to declare their independence on March 2, 1836. Following the Battle of San Jacinto, where Texan forces under Sam Houston defeated Santa Anna, Texas achieved de facto independence, though Mexico refused to ratify the agreement and continued to deny its legitimacy.

Political Landscape

Jackson & Van Buren Hesitation

The majority of Texian settlers desired immediate annexation by the United States. However, Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren were politically cautious. They feared that admitting Texas, a vast slave-holding region, would exacerbate sectional tensions over slavery in Congress and potentially provoke war with Mexico. Consequently, Texas's annexation requests were repeatedly rejected or stalled.

Tyler's Presidential Ambition

President John Tyler, isolated from the Whig party, saw Texas annexation as a critical objective to secure his presidency. He believed that acquiring Texas would bolster his political standing and counter perceived British influence aimed at emancipating slaves in Texas, thereby threatening slavery in the United States. Tyler initiated secret negotiations for annexation.

The "Safety-Valve" Argument

Senator Robert J. Walker of Mississippi, a key Tyler ally, articulated a compelling argument for annexation in a widely circulated pamphlet. He proposed a "safety-valve" theory, suggesting that Texas could serve as an outlet for the southward migration of enslaved people, potentially easing tensions over slavery in the older Southern states and preventing social upheaval. This argument appealed to both Southern interests and Northern anxieties about racial demographics.

The Tyler-Texas Treaty

Negotiation and Terms

Under Secretary of State Abel P. Upshur, and later John C. Calhoun, the Tyler administration finalized a treaty of annexation in April 1844. The treaty proposed admitting Texas as a territory, with the U.S. assuming its debts and gaining control of its public lands. Crucially, the treaty omitted explicit mention of slavery to avoid immediate opposition, but included provisions for the protection of "property as secured in our domestic institutions."

Public Disclosure and Opposition

The treaty's details, including Secretary Calhoun's controversial "Packenham Letter" defending slavery, were leaked to the public. This revelation intensified sectional conflict, galvanizing anti-annexation forces in the North and leading both major presidential candidates, Martin Van Buren and Henry Clay, to publicly denounce the treaty.

Senate Rejection

Despite Tyler's efforts and assurances, the Senate, deeply divided by the slavery issue and the treaty's implications, rejected the Tyler-Texas treaty on June 8, 1844, by a significant margin (16-35). The vote largely followed party lines, with Whigs opposing and Democrats divided.

The Election of 1844

Texas as a Central Issue

The failure of the treaty propelled Texas annexation to the forefront of the 1844 presidential election. President Tyler, initially threatening a third-party candidacy, ultimately withdrew to support the Democratic nominee, James K. Polk, who ran on a platform of "Manifest Destiny," advocating for both the annexation of Texas and the acquisition of Oregon territory.

Polk's Victory

Polk's victory over Henry Clay was interpreted as a mandate for expansion. While the annexation was framed by Polk's campaign as a matter of national destiny rather than solely a pro-slavery measure, the outcome signaled a shift in national sentiment towards territorial expansion, including Texas.

Congressional Debate

Joint Resolution Proposal

Undeterred by the treaty's defeat, President Tyler proposed using a joint resolution, requiring only simple majorities in both houses of Congress, to annex Texas. This maneuver aimed to bypass the Senate's two-thirds treaty requirement and leverage the Democratic majority in the House of Representatives.

The Brown-Foster Amendment

Southern Whigs, seeking to counter accusations of being "soft on slavery," collaborated to introduce an amendment (the Brown-Foster amendment) to the joint resolution. This amendment offered more favorable terms for slaveholders, including retaining Texas's public lands and debt, and allowing for the potential creation of multiple slave states, thereby outdoing the Democratic proposal.

Benton's Compromise

Senator Thomas Hart Benton proposed an alternative resolution, aiming to appease northern Democrats by removing explicit slavery stipulations and deferring boundary decisions to President-elect Polk. This compromise sought to unite Democrats and allow the incoming administration to manage the final details.

The Resolution

Senate Passage

After considerable debate and political maneuvering, the Senate narrowly passed a compromise joint resolution on February 27, 1845. This version incorporated elements of both the Brown and Benton proposals, assuring northern Democrats that slavery's status would be managed carefully, while satisfying southern interests.

House Approval & Presidential Signature

The House of Representatives subsequently approved the Senate's amended joint resolution. On March 1, 1845, President Tyler signed the resolution, formally offering annexation to Texas on terms that allowed for the creation of new states, with slavery permitted in those south of the Missouri Compromise line.

Annexation & Admittance

Texas Ratification

President Polk, upon taking office, upheld Tyler's decision to offer immediate annexation without reopening negotiations. The Texas Congress accepted the joint resolution on June 23, 1845, and a convention formally assented to annexation on July 4, adopting a new state constitution. Texas citizens approved these measures on October 13, 1845.

Statehood Achieved

On December 29, 1845, President Polk signed the legislation admitting Texas as the 28th state of the Union. Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty on February 19, 1846, marking the culmination of a decade-long pursuit of statehood and annexation.

Border Dispute & War

The annexation immediately triggered a border dispute with Mexico, which claimed the Nueces River as the boundary while Texas asserted the Rio Grande. This unresolved issue, coupled with Polk's dispatch of troops to the Rio Grande, led directly to the Mexican-American War in April 1846, ultimately resulting in Mexico ceding its claims to Texas and accepting the Rio Grande as the border.

Teacher's Corner

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

Edit and Print Materials from this study in the wiki2web studio

Click here to open the "Texas Annexation" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit

Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Learn about texas_annexation while playing the wiki2web Clarity Challenge game.

Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!

Play now

Explore More Topics

Discover other topics to study!

the american journal of clinical nutrition

holy cross catholic academy amarillo texas

list of titles and honours of queen sof ía of spain

treaty on the final settlement with respect to germany

christian mysticism

battle royal professional wrestling

when the sun comes out

dudi sela

foreign policy

united nations mission of observers in prevlaka

References

Dangerfield, 1952, p. 152: "On February 22 [1819], the great Transcontinental Treaty was signed and sealed."

Crapol, 2006, p. 176: "... the Sabine River ... today is the boundary between [the states of] Louisiana and Texas." p. 176: The US claim to Texas" was legally extinguished ..."

Dangerfield, 1952, p. 156:"It was by no means a perfect Treaty â by excluding Texas [from US possession], it bequeathed to the United States a legacy of trouble and war â but was certainly a great Treaty."

Holt, 2004, p. 6: "In short, in 1820, a majority of southern congressmen accepted congressional prohibition of slavery from almost all of the western territories."

Brown, 1966, p. 25: "As the [Missouri] debates thundered to their climax, Ritchie in two separate editorials predicted the if the Proviso passed, the South must in due time have Texas".

Freehling, 1991, p. 152: "The Thomas plan angered some Southerners. They denounced the unequal division of turf and constitutional precedent."

Crapol, 2006, p. 206: Pro-Texas arguments made by Senator Walker in 1843 were "remarkably similar to [Tyler's] diffusion theory he earlier had formulated at the time of the Missouri controversy."

Freehling, 1991, pp. 368â369Merry, 2009, p. 70: "Stephen [Austin] arrived in 1821 and established sway over 100,000 acres of [Mexican land grants] with the assistance of Tejano elites who sought to partner in his enterprise."

Freehling, 1991, p. 365: "The Mexican government ... considered southwestern [US] entrepreneurs the most likely migrants" and invited them "to bring along their despotic alternative to Mexican economic peonage, black slavery ..."

Malone, 1960, p. 543: "The vast distances in Texas, the premium that space paid to the individualism" contributed to "the disrespect of settlers for Mexican authority" and "Private violence was common ... and public violence was endemic."

Merk, 1978, p. 270: "The Texan revolt was the result primarily of the initial Mexican error of admitting into the rich prairies of Texas a race of aggressive and unruly American frontiersmen who were contemptuous of Mexico and Mexican authority."

Merk, 1978, p. 270: Mexican authorities feared that "... Texas was developing into an American state ...", Malone, 1960, p. 544: "... the Colonization Law of 1830 ... forbade further American migration to Texas."

Freehling, 1991, p.545: "Neglected sovereign power [in Texas] was creating a vacuum" and Mexico "accordingly emancipated slaves" nationwide on "September 15, 1829"

Freehling, 1991, p. 365: "... On April 21, 1836, General Sam Houston ambushed Santa Anna at San Jacinto ..."

Merry, 2009, p. 71: "... an official state of war existed between the two entities, although it never erupted into full scale fighting."

Freehling, 1991, p. 365: "... prospective American settlers [did not] have to be told that life and property were safer in the United States than in Texas ..." and slave-owners "considered slave property particularly unsafe across the border."

Malone, 1960, p. 545: Texans "avidly desired annexation by the United States.", Crapol, 2006, p. 176: Texans "overwhelmingly supported immediate annexation by the United States."

Freehling, 1991, p. 367: "On the last day of his administration ... he recognized the independence of Texas."

Merry, 2009, p. 71: Van Buren "particularly feared any sectional flare-ups over slavery that would ensue from an annexation effort."

Crapol, 2006, p. 177: "[A series of failures to annex Texas] was more of less where matters [on annexation] stood when John Tyler entered the White House."

Crapol, 2006, p. 10: "Three days after taking the symbolic oath-taking [April 6, 1841], John Tyler issued an inaugural address to further buttress the legitimacy of his presidency."

Merk, 1978, p. 281: "The temper of the period was expansionist and its tide might carry the statesman [Tyler] riding it into a term of his own in the White House."

Crapol, 2006, p. 178:"Despite being preoccupied by these more urgent diplomatic initiatives, the president kept Texas uppermost on his long-term expansionist agenda."

Merk, 1978, p. 282: "... the discovery of a British 'plot' to abolitionize Texas ... promised a government guarantee of interest on a loan to Texas ... devoted to abolitionizing Texas."

Merry, 2009, p. 72: Duff Green's claims of a British loan plot, "though false ... was highly incendiary throughout the South â and also in the White House, occupied by a Virginia slaveholder and longtime Calhoun confidant."

Crapol, 2006, p. 195Merk, 1991, p. 283: "Prompt action was necessary to meet the threat. Tyler at once authorized Upshur to open negotiations with the Texas government ... on September 18, 1843 ..." and "word passed to Isaac Van Zandt ..."

Finkelman, 2011, p. 30: "By 1843, the government in Austin [Texas] was negotiating with Great Britain to intercede with Mexico to recognize Texas independence."Freehling, 1991, pp. 370â371

Freehling, 1991, p. 369: "An American presidential election loomed ... [both parties] were determined to keep annexation out of the canvass."

Merk, 1978, p. 285: "The question [of American military commitment] went to the heart of Texan hesitation about entering into American negotiation, and also at the heart of the American constitutional principle of separation of powers."

Crapol, 2006, p. 198: "... Almonte bluntly warned [Upshur], Mexico would sever diplomatic relations and immediately declare war."

Crapol, 2006, p. 199: Uphsur denied "any knowledge of US-Texas negotiations to Minister Almonte ..."

Crapol, 2006, p. 203: "... Upshur ... inform[ed] Texas officials that at least forty of fifty-two senators were solid for ratification ..."

Crapol, 2006, p. 199: "It was the prudent thing to do if he hoped to retain the trust of the Texans and keep them at the negotiating table."

Crapol, 2006, p. 209: "The deaths of Upshur and Gilmer deprived [Tyler] of two of his best people and the most important architects of the administration's annexation policy ... the political landscape had been rocked."

Crapol, 2006, p. 211: Calhoun "ranked with Daniel Webster and Henry Clay as America's leading political icons of the early republic."

Crapol, 2006, p. 211: "... Tyler momentarily balked at the idea of appointing Calhoun as secretary of state because the South Carolinian might adversely polarize public opinion on the Texas question ... It was a decision he later came to regret."

Crapol, 2006, p. 22: "... the Monroe Doctrine [was] a restatement of the Madisonian/Jeffersonian faith in territorial expansion ..." also see p. 205.

Crapol, 2006, p. 206: Walker warned of "the ever-threatening British who were intent on preventing annexation ... as part of their overall plan to undercut American national destiny."

Freehling, 1991, p. 418: Failure to annex Texas, according to Walker "would lead to British-induced emancipation in Texas, then to Yankee-induced emancipation in the South, then to freed slaves swarming northwards towards their liberators."

Crapol, 2006, p. 206: "Senator Walker ... once again proposed the all-purpose remedy of annexation [which would] 'strengthen and fortify the whole Union.'"

Freehling, 1991, p. 418: "The Walker thesis transformed sorely pressed Northern Democrats from traitors who knuckled under to the Slavepower into heroes who would diffuse blacks further from the North."

Crapol, 2006, p. 207: In the weeks and months following its publication, his letter "shaped and framed" the public debate.Freehling, 1991, p. 422: "No one called Walker's [analysis] 'untrue'."

Merk, 1978, p. 286: "Texas ... admitted as a territory subject to the same constitutional provisions as other territories ..."

Crapol, 2006, p. 213Merk, 1978, p. 286: "What the Senate would ratify was kept constantly in mind" during the Tyler-Texas negotiation.

Crapol, 2006, p. 213: "This garrison ... named the Army of Observation" and "... a powerful naval force to the Gulf of Mexico."

Crapol, 2006, p. 217: "Spencer thought Tyler's directive [to supply funds without Congressional sanction] was illegal ... After twice refusing to execute the president's order, Secretary Spencer resigned his cabinet post on May 2, 1844."

Freehling, 1991, p. 408: "On April 22, 1844, the Senate received the pre-treaty correspondence [and] the [Tyler] treaty ..."

Crapol, 2006, pp. 216â217: "As opposition to the Texas treaty mounted, the two leading candidates for the Whig and Democratic presidential nominations came out against immediate annexation."

Merk, 1978, p. 288: Tyler moved the annexation issue "into the presidential campaign of 1844, which was underway."

Crapol, 2006, p. 219: "In November Polk narrowly defeated Henry Clay in the popular vote by just over 38,000 out of 2.7 million votes cast ..."

Sellers, 1966, p. 168: "The chain of events running back through the Baltimore convention to Calhoun's Packenham letter had finally polarized the Democrats along North-South lines."

Merry, 2009, pp. 72â73: Calhoun's "letter to British minister Richard Packenham ... contained language so incendiary and politically audacious that it would render Senate ratification nearly impossible ..."

Crapol, 2006, pp. 218â219: "Untroubled by the initial failure, Tyler had carefully prepared for just such a contingency ... recommending [Congress] consider another path to annexation."

Freehling, 1991, p. 440: "... the lame-duck Congress returned to Washington in December 1844 ..." and p. 443: "The previous June, this same Senate had scuttled Tyler's treaty of annexation, 35â16."Holt, 2005, p. 12

Sellers, 1966, p. 171: "... Benton and others maintained that if Texas were admitted as a state, with any stipulation of terms, this would be a treaty requiring the assent of two thirds of the Senate."

Holt, 2005, p. 12: "With their heavy majority in the House, Democrats could easily pass the [Tyler] resolution containing the same terms as Tyler's rejected treaty. Anti-Texas Whigs controlled the Senate narrowly, 28â24.

Freehling, 1991, p. 443, Freehling, 1978, p. 443: "The South-leaning Democratic Party controlled the House by almost a two-to-one majority."

Sellers, 1966, p. 170: "[Texas] agitation ... had shaken both northern Democrats and Southern Whigs" during the 1844 elections."

Sellers, 1966, pp. 170â171: "Yet, apart from slavery, annexation was popular in much of the North ..." with some politicians under "heavy pressure" to proceed with Texas annexation.

Sellers, 1966, p. 172: "With Democrats in hopeless disagreement, the equally beleaguered southern Whigs now took a hand."

Holt, 2005, p. 12: "Aware ... that their party had been damaged in the South by the annexation issue in 1844, a few southern Whigs were now eager to annex Texas."

Varon, 2008, p. 175: "A small but aggressive cadre of Southern Whigs ... certain that annexation had decimated them in the recent election, broke ranks and joined the Democrats [on the Texas annexation issue]."

Freehling, 1991, p. 441: "Both Whig Senator Ephraim Foster ... who wrote Brown's amendment, and Whig Congressman Alexander Stephens ... who helped guide the measure through the House ..."

Sellers, 1966, p.172: "But the great camouflaged issue was by now slavery" with neither North nor South willing to compromise on the matter.

Sellers, 1966, p. 186: "Texas was still far more a party question than a sectional question.", May, 2008, p. 123, Holt, 2005, pp. 13â14

Sellers, 1966, p. 186: "The situation in the Senate was extremely complex."Freehling, 1991, p. 443: "the amended joint resolution now faced a harder test in the Senate."

Freehling, 1991, p. 446: "... the only Southern Democrat who had voted no on the annexation treaty ..."

Wilentz, 2008, p. 572: "In the Senate, Thomas Hart Benton offered his own plan which would split Texas into two equal districts, one slave and one free, and require Mexico's consent."

Freeling, 1991, p. 447: "The impasse paralyzed the Polk administration before the President-elect could take office."Sellers, 1966, p. 205

Holt, 2005, p. 15Freehling, 1991, pp. 447â448: "All Democrats and three turncoat Whigs" voted for the compromise treaty bill.

Holt, 2005, pp. 14â15: The Benton-Van Burenite Senators "expected Polk to pursue [their] option because Polk explicitly promised Benton that he would do so. Only that promise brought northern Democrats on board."

Sellers, 1966, p. 216: "Tyler did insist that Calhoun get Polk's reaction to the plan. But Polk cagily 'declined to express any opinion or to make any suggestion in reference to the subject', as Calhoun reported to Tyler ..."

Holt, 2004, p. 15: "[Tyler] dispatched a courier to Texas offering annexation under the Brown-amended version of the House bill. Rather than recall this courier, Polk broke his promise to the Van Burenites and endorsed Tyler's action."

Merk, 1978, p.308: "In Texas, on February 19, 1846, [Texas President] Anson Jones presided over the ceremony of the transfer of his state's sovereignty to the United States."

Miguel E. Soto, "The Monarchist Conspiracy and the Mexican War" in Essays on the Mexican War ed by Wayne Cutler; Texas A&M University Press. 1986. pp. 66â67.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Texas annexation Wikipedia page

Feedback & Support

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice

This content has been meticulously crafted by an AI, drawing exclusively from the provided source material to ensure historical accuracy and adherence to academic standards. It is intended for educational purposes, offering a detailed analysis of the Texas annexation process for students at the Master's degree level and above.

This is not a substitute for primary source research or professional historical consultation. While every effort has been made to reflect the source accurately, users are encouraged to consult original documents and scholarly works for comprehensive understanding. The information provided is based on data available at the time of generation and may not encompass all nuances or subsequent historical interpretations.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any interpretations or actions taken based on the information presented herein.

The Lone Star's Union

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Historical Context 🗺️

🌍 Spanish & Mexican Texas

🇺🇸 Early U.S. Interest

🤝 Mexican Sovereignty & Claims

Texas Settlement & Independence ⚔️

🏠 Anglo-American Colonization

📜 Shifting Mexican Policy

🚩 Declaration of Independence

Political Landscape ⚖️

🤔 Jackson & Van Buren Hesitation

🎯 Tyler's Presidential Ambition

🗣️ The "Safety-Valve" Argument

The Tyler-Texas Treaty 📜

✍️ Negotiation and Terms

💥 Public Disclosure and Opposition

❌ Senate Rejection

The Election of 1844 🗳️

⚡ Texas as a Central Issue

🏆 Polk's Victory

Congressional Debate 🗣️

🔄 Joint Resolution Proposal

⚖️ The Brown-Foster Amendment

🤝 Benton's Compromise

The Resolution ✅

🏛️ Senate Passage

📜 House Approval & Presidential Signature

Annexation & Admittance ⭐

🗳️ Texas Ratification

🇺🇸 Statehood Achieved

💥 Border Dispute & War

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Historical Context

Spanish & Mexican Texas

Early U.S. Interest

Mexican Sovereignty & Claims

Texas Settlement & Independence

Anglo-American Colonization

Shifting Mexican Policy

Declaration of Independence

Political Landscape

Jackson & Van Buren Hesitation

Tyler's Presidential Ambition

The "Safety-Valve" Argument

The Tyler-Texas Treaty

Negotiation and Terms

Public Disclosure and Opposition

Senate Rejection

The Election of 1844

Texas as a Central Issue

Polk's Victory

Congressional Debate

Joint Resolution Proposal

The Brown-Foster Amendment

Benton's Compromise

The Resolution

Senate Passage

House Approval & Presidential Signature

Annexation & Admittance

Texas Ratification

Statehood Achieved

Border Dispute & War

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice