What was Trajan's full name and his significance as a Roman emperor?

Trajan's full name was Marcus Ulpius Traianus. He reigned as Roman emperor from AD 98 to 117 and is remembered as the second of the Five Good Emperors, a philanthropic ruler, and a successful soldier-emperor who oversaw the Roman Empire's greatest territorial expansion, reaching its maximum territorial extent by the time of his death.

What honorific title did the Roman Senate bestow upon Trajan, and what did it signify?

The Roman Senate bestowed upon Trajan the honorific title of *Optimus*, meaning 'the best.' This title, which appeared on coins from 105 AD, primarily recognized his role as a benefactor, such as his act of returning confiscated property. Trajan was the only emperor officially honored with the title *optimus princeps*.

Where was Trajan born, and what was the origin of his family, the gens Ulpia?

Trajan was born on September 18, 53 AD, in the *municipium* of Italica in Hispania Baetica, which is in present-day Andalusia, Spain. His family, the gens Ulpia, originated from the town of Tuder in the Umbria region of central Italy, an Italic settlement.

How did Trajan rise to prominence before becoming emperor?

Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of Domitian, serving as a *legatus legionis* in Hispania Tarraconensis where he supported the emperor against a revolt led by Antonius Saturninus. He later served as governor of Germania and Pannonia, distinguishing himself in military campaigns against Germanic tribes.

What circumstances led to Nerva adopting Trajan as his heir?

Nerva, Domitian's elderly and childless successor, was unpopular with the army and had been forced by his Praetorian Prefect, Casperius Aelianus, to execute Domitian's killers. To secure the army's support and avoid being ousted, Nerva adopted the more popular Trajan as his heir and successor in the summer of 97 AD, citing Trajan's outstanding military merits.

Who was Apollodorus of Damascus, and what was his connection to Trajan?

Apollodorus of Damascus was a gifted architect and engineer whom Trajan brought with him to Rome around the time of his consulship in 91 AD. Apollodorus designed and erected many of Trajan's significant building projects, including a massive bridge over the Danube and Trajan's Forum.

What was the nature of Trajan's marriage to Pompeia Plotina?

Trajan married Pompeia Plotina, a noblewoman from the Roman settlement at Nîmes. Their marriage ultimately remained childless.

How did Trajan's accession to emperor differ from a typical orderly succession, according to some historians?

Trajan's accession, following Nerva's death on January 28, 98 AD, could qualify more as a successful coup than an orderly succession. He delayed his arrival in Rome for a lengthy tour of inspection on the Rhine and Danube frontiers, and ordered the execution of Praetorian Prefect Aelianus, who had previously coerced Nerva.

What was Trajan's approach to the Roman Senate, and how did it contrast with the reality of his rule?

Trajan outwardly appeared to conform to traditional hierarchies and senatorial morals, even feigning reluctance to hold power and exhorting the Senate to share in governing the empire. However, in reality, he did not share power in any meaningful way, acting as an autocrat, a fact acknowledged by Pliny the Younger.

What was the significance of the title *optimus princeps* for Trajan?

The title *optimus princeps*, meaning 'the best ruler,' was officially bestowed upon Trajan by the Roman Senate, appearing on coins from 105 AD. While the epithet had been used for emperors since the late republic, Trajan was the only one formally honored with it, recognizing his virtuous rule and benefactions.

How did Trajan manage relations with Greek intellectuals and notables in the Eastern provinces?

Trajan sought to ingratiate himself with the Greek intellectual elite by recalling those exiled by Domitian and returning confiscated property. However, he viewed Greek intellectuals and notables as tools for local administration, not as equals to Roman rulers, and was wary of their independent political activity, such as forming firemen corps or excessive civic generosities.

What was Trajan's policy regarding local notables' extravagant building projects in Greek cities?

Trajan was concerned about the excessive spending on grandiose building projects by local Greek elites, which often stemmed from rivalries between cities and led to financial disorder. He believed these projects should suit the cities' 'real needs' rather than being extravagant displays of 'cultural patriotism' that shunned Roman authority.

What were the 'correctores' introduced by Trajan, and what was their purpose?

Imperial *correctores* were an authoritarian innovation by Trajan, appointed to audit the civic finances of technically free Greek cities. Their goal was to curb overenthusiastic spending on public works and any hint of independent political activity among local notables, though this often resulted in a trail of unfinished or poorly maintained public utilities.

Who was the primary architect behind many of Trajan's major building projects?

The gifted architect Apollodorus of Damascus was responsible for designing and erecting many of Trajan's significant building projects, including a massive bridge over the Danube and the Forum Traiani.

Describe some of the key features of Trajan's Forum.

Trajan's Forum was Rome's largest forum, built to commemorate his Dacian victories and largely financed by the campaign's spoils. Its magnificent design by Apollodorus of Damascus incorporated a triumphal arch entrance, a vast forum space, a monumental basilica, and later, the famous Trajan's Column and libraries.

What significant infrastructure projects did Trajan undertake outside of Rome?

Outside of Rome, Trajan oversaw the construction of a massive bridge over the Danube, works at the Iron Gates region of the Danube including a boardwalk road cut into the cliff-face and a canal, and important roads like the Via Traiana and the Via Traiana Nova.

How did Trajan invest in public entertainment, and what was the purpose of these investments?

Trajan heavily invested in popular amusements, including a 'massive reconstruction' of the Circus Maximus, replacing flammable wooden seating with stone and increasing its capacity. He also held 123 days of games to celebrate his Dacian victory, involving thousands of gladiators and animals. These state-funded entertainments helped maintain contentment among the populace, alongside the corn dole.

What was Trajan's policy towards Christians in the Roman Empire, as evidenced by his correspondence with Pliny the Younger?

Trajan instructed Pliny the Younger to continue prosecuting Christians if they merited it, but to reject anonymous or malicious denunciations, considering it in the interest of justice and reflecting 'the spirit of the age.' Non-citizens who admitted to being Christians and refused to recant were to be executed, while citizens were sent to Rome for trial.

How did Trajan's Dacian Wars impact the Roman currency and welfare programs?

In 107 AD, Trajan devalued the Roman currency by decreasing the silver content of the denarius from 93.5% to 89.0%. This, combined with the massive amounts of gold and silver acquired from his Dacian Wars, allowed him to mint many more denarii and formalize social welfare policies like the *alimenta*, which provided cash, food, and subsidized education to orphans and poor children in Italy.

What was the primary strategic motivation behind Trajan's conquest of Dacia?

Trajan's primary strategic motivation for conquering Dacia was that it represented an organized state capable of forming alliances, posing a significant strategic threat to Roman expansion and stability, unlike less organized Germanic tribes.

Describe the outcome of the First Dacian War (101-102 AD).

In the First Dacian War, Trajan's forces crossed the Danube and defeated the Dacian army at Tapae, though with heavy losses. Decebalus was forced to submit, renouncing claims to some regions of his kingdom, returning Roman runaways, and surrendering all his war machines, after which Trajan returned to Rome in triumph and was granted the title *Dacicus*.

What events led to the Second Dacian War?

Following the peace of 102 AD, Decebalus violated the terms by rearming, harboring Roman runaways, and pressuring his Western neighbors, the Iazyges Sarmatians, into an anti-Roman alliance. He also attempted to assassinate Trajan and undertook an invasion of Roman-occupied territory north of the Danube in 105 AD, leading to the Second Dacian War.

What was the fate of King Decebalus after the fall of Sarmizegetusa Regia?

After the Roman capture and destruction of his stronghold, Sarmizegetusa Regia, King Decebalus fled. He was later cornered by Roman cavalry and committed suicide. His severed head, brought to Trajan by Tiberius Claudius Maximus, was later exhibited in Rome on the steps leading up to the Capitol and thrown on the Gemonian stairs.

How did Trajan manage the newly conquered province of Dacia?

Trajan resettled Dacia with Romans and annexed it as a Roman province. He established a new civilian administrative center, Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica Sarmizegetusa, on a different site from the previous Dacian capital. Urban life in Roman Dacia was primarily restricted to Roman colonists, mostly military veterans, with native Dacians continuing to live in scattered rural settlements.

What economic benefits did the Roman Empire gain from the Dacian campaigns?

The Dacian campaigns yielded enormous booty, including over half a million slaves and staggering amounts of gold and silver from Dacia's mines. These resources significantly benefited the Empire's finances, with the gold mines managed by an imperial procurator of equestrian rank.

What was the significance of the Tropaeum Traiani and Trajan's Column?

The Tropaeum Traiani, a cenotaph generally known as the Tropaeum Traiani, was built in Moesia in 102 AD, and the much later Trajan's Column in Rome (113 AD) were constructed to commemorate Trajan's victories in the Dacian Wars, with the column depicting the wars' most important moments in stone carved bas-reliefs.

What led to the annexation of the Nabataean Kingdom in 106 AD?

The death of Rabbel II Soter, one of Rome's client kings, in 106 AD, might have prompted the annexation of the Nabataean Kingdom. While the exact manner and formal reasons for the annexation are unclear, some epigraphic evidence suggests a military operation involving forces from Syria and Egypt.

What was the broader significance of the Nabataean annexation for the Roman East?

The annexation of Nabataea, which became the province of Arabia Petraea, was significant because it was the last client kingdom in Asia west of the Euphrates. Its incorporation meant that the entire Roman East had been provincialized, completing a trend towards direct Roman rule that had begun under the Flavians.

What was the primary provocation for Trajan's Parthian campaign in 113 AD?

Trajan's Parthian campaign in 113 AD was primarily provoked by Parthia's decision to install an unacceptable king on the throne of Armenia, a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier.

What economic motives have modern historians suggested for Trajan's Parthian War?

Some modern historians suggest economic motives, such as gaining direct Roman control over Charax on the Persian Gulf, which was the sole remaining western terminus of the Indian trade route outside direct Roman control. This control was seen as important to lower import prices and limit the supposed drain of precious metals from Roman trade with the Far East.

Why do some scholars reject the economic motives for Trajan's Parthian War?

Scholars like Moses Finley and Paul Veyne consider the idea of a foreign trade policy underlying Trajan's war to be anachronistic. They argue that Roman leaders' concern with Far Eastern luxuries was more moral in nature, as contemporary Roman mores frowned upon the 'softness' of luxuries, and that trade with India might have been more balanced than assumed.

What alternative motivations for the Parthian campaign are proposed by historians?

Alternative motivations include the lure of territorial annexation and prestige, the propaganda value of emulating Alexander the Great's Eastern conquests, the support of a powerful circle of conservative Spanish senators committed to imperial expansion, the Roman belief that their empire was in principle unlimited, or purely military and strategic aims to assure a more defensible Eastern frontier.

How was Trajan's Parthian campaign meticulously planned?

The Parthian campaign was carefully planned in advance, with ten legions concentrated in the Eastern theatre. Provincial authorities in Bithynia had to organize supplies for passing troops, and local city councils and their individual members had to shoulder part of the increased expenses by supplying troops themselves, indicating the immense cost from the outset.

What was the initial phase of Trajan's Parthian campaign in Armenia?

Trajan first marched on Armenia, deposed the Parthian-appointed king Parthamasiris (who was afterwards murdered), and annexed Armenia to the Roman Empire as a province. This process, which included receiving acknowledgment of Roman hegemony from various tribes in the Caucasus and on the Eastern coast of the Black Sea, kept him busy until the end of 114 AD.

What was the role of Lusius Quietus in the Parthian campaign?

Lusius Quietus, an outstanding cavalry general who had distinguished himself during the Dacian Wars, led a Roman column from Armenia across the Araxes river into Media Atropatene and the land of the Mardians. It is possible his campaign aimed to extend the newer, more defensible Roman border eastward towards the Caspian Sea and northward to the foothills of the Caucasus.

How did Trajan consolidate Roman control in Northern Mesopotamia?

In early 115 AD, Trajan launched a Mesopotamian campaign, marching towards the Taurus mountains and establishing permanent garrisons to secure the territory. Through a successful pincer movement with Lusius Quietus, he captured Nisibis and Batnae, organizing a province of Mesopotamia, including the Kingdom of Osrhoene, as a Roman protectorate.

What significant cities did Trajan capture during his push into Parthia proper in 116 AD?

During his campaign in 116 AD, Trajan's forces captured Babylon, Seleucia, and finally the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon, as part of his ambitious goal to conquer the whole of Mesopotamia.

What symbolic act did Trajan perform upon reaching the Persian Gulf?

Upon reaching the Persian Gulf, after receiving the submission of Athambelus, the ruler of Charax, Trajan declared Babylon a new province of the Empire and had his statue erected on the shore of the Persian Gulf. He then sent a laurelled letter to the Senate, declaring the war to be at a close and bemoaning that he was too old to go on any further and repeat the conquests of Alexander the Great.

What was the 'Diaspora Revolt,' and where did it occur?

The 'Diaspora Revolt' was an ethnic and religious uprising by Jewish communities in the Eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, specifically in Egypt, Cyprus, and Cyrene, occurring around AD 116-117. Additionally, Jewish communities in Northern Mesopotamia revolted, likely as part of a broader resistance against Roman occupation.

How did Trajan respond to the Diaspora Revolt?

Trajan had to withdraw his army from the Parthian campaign to suppress these revolts, which he considered a temporary setback. He delegated Eastern operations to Lusius Quietus, who was appointed governor of Judaea in early 117 AD and likely dealt with Jewish unrest there, leading to the conflict being known as the 'Kitos War' in rabbinic sources.

What was the fate of Lusius Quietus after his success in suppressing the Jewish revolt?

Despite being promised a consulship for his victories, Lusius Quietus was killed before this could occur, during the bloody purge that opened Hadrian's reign. He and three other former consuls were sentenced to death after being tried on a vague charge of conspiracy by the Praetorian Prefect Attianus, likely due to Hadrian's fear of their popular standing with the army and their close connections to Trajan.

Where and when did Trajan die?

Trajan grew ill early in 117 AD and set sail for Italy. His health declined throughout the spring and summer of 117, and he suddenly died of a stroke in the city of Selinus (modern Gazipaşa in Cilicia), shortly before August 11, 117 AD.

Where were Trajan's ashes reportedly entombed?

According to a well-established historical tradition, Trajan's ashes were placed within the small cella that still survives at the base of Trajan's Column in Rome. Some modern scholarship suggests they were more likely interred near his column, in a mausoleum, temple, or tomb built for his cult as a *divus* of the Roman state.

What role did Pompeia Plotina play in Hadrian's succession, according to historical tradition?

According to a well-established historical tradition, Trajan's wife, Pompeia Plotina, assured Hadrian's succession by keeping Trajan's death a secret long enough for her to produce and sign a document attesting to Hadrian's adoption as son and successor. This narrative may reflect male Roman displeasure at an empress meddling in political affairs.

Why was Hadrian's position during Trajan's reign considered ambiguous regarding succession?

Hadrian's position was ambiguous because he had pursued a senatorial career without particular distinction and, despite receiving decorations, had not been officially adopted by Trajan. He received no post after his 108 consulship and no further honors other than being made Archon eponymos for Athens in 111/112, and literary sources relate that Trajan had considered others as heir.

What was Hadrian's first major act as emperor concerning Trajan's conquests?

Hadrian's first major act as emperor was to abandon Mesopotamia, deeming it too costly and distant to defend. He also restored Armenia and Osrhoene to Parthian hegemony, though under Rome's suzerainty, acknowledging that the Parthian campaign had been an enormous setback and that Rome had overstretched its capacity for conquest.

How was Trajan's legacy viewed in ancient sources?

Ancient sources on Trajan's personality and accomplishments are unanimously positive. Pliny the Younger, for example, celebrated him as a wise and just emperor and a moral man, while Cassius Dio added that he always remained dignified and fair.

What acclamation did the Roman Senate use to honor later emperors in relation to Trajan?

In the Later Roman Empire, following the setbacks of the third century, Trajan, along with Augustus, became a paragon of the most positive traits of the Imperial order. Emperors in the 4th century were honored by the Senate with the acclamation *Felicior Augusto, Melior Traiano* ('May you be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan').

How did Trajan's iconography differ from earlier Roman emperors?

All Roman emperors until Trajan, except Nero, were depicted clean-shaven, following a fashion introduced by Scipio Africanus. Trajan continued this tradition, always being depicted without a beard. It was his successor, Hadrian, who later made beards fashionable for emperors.

How was Trajan perceived in the Middle Ages, particularly by theologians and in Dante's *Divine Comedy*?

During the Middle Ages, some theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas, discussed Trajan as an example of a virtuous pagan. In Dante's *Divine Comedy*, Dante, following this legend, places Trajan's spirit in the Heaven of Jupiter for his justice, and a mural of Trajan providing justice for a poor widow is depicted in Purgatory as a lesson against pride.

How did Renaissance and Enlightenment historians view Trajan's legacy?

In the Renaissance, Machiavelli cited Trajan as one of the 'Five Good Emperors,' a trope popularized by Edward Gibbon in the 18th century. However, during the Enlightenment, Gibbon expressed doubts about the militarized character of Trajan's reign, contrasting it with the 'moderate' practices of his successors, and Mommsen spoke of his 'vainglory' and 'insatiable, unlimited lust for conquest'.

Trajan Wiki: Imperator Optimus: Unveiling the Reign of Trajan, Rome's Zenith

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Trajan: An Overview

The 'Best Ruler'

Marcus Ulpius Traianus, known simply as Trajan, reigned as Roman Emperor from AD 98 to 117. He is celebrated as the second of the "Five Good Emperors" of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. His rule is particularly noted for its philanthropic governance and a series of highly successful military campaigns that saw the Roman Empire reach its maximum territorial expanse. The Roman Senate, in recognition of his exceptional leadership, bestowed upon him the esteemed title of Optimus Princeps, meaning 'the best ruler'.

Imperial Expansion

Trajan's reign was a period of significant military expansion. He successfully annexed the Nabataean Kingdom and Dacia, vastly enriching the Empire. His ambitious war against the Parthian Empire further extended Roman influence, incorporating Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria as Roman provinces. These conquests solidified his legacy as a formidable soldier-emperor, pushing the boundaries of Roman dominion further than ever before.

Builder and Benefactor

Beyond military prowess, Trajan was a prolific builder and a keen administrator of social welfare. He initiated grand construction projects, most notably the magnificent Trajan's Forum in Rome, largely funded by the spoils of his Dacian campaigns. He also formalized the alimenta, a social welfare program designed to support orphans and impoverished children across Italy, demonstrating a commitment to the well-being of his populace.

Historical Sources

Literary Accounts

Our understanding of Trajan's reign is primarily derived from a mix of literary sources, though many are incomplete. Trajan himself authored Commentarii de bellis Dacicis, an account of the Dacian Wars, but only a single sentence survives. Similarly, fragments remain of Titus Statilius Criton's Getica and Arrian's 17-volume Parthica. The most substantial political history comes from Book 68 of Cassius Dio's Roman History, largely preserved through Byzantine abridgements.

Contemporary Perspectives

Pliny the Younger's Panegyricus and Dio Chrysostom's orations offer contemporary, albeit highly adulatory, views of Trajan's rule. These texts, typical of the High Imperial period, present an idealized monarch and his governance, focusing more on ideological virtues than factual details. Pliny's tenth volume of letters, containing his correspondence with Trajan, provides a unique insight into imperial Roman government, though scholars debate its intimacy and potential editing by Trajan's imperial secretary.

Non-Literary Evidence

Given the scarcity and often biased nature of literary sources, modern historiography relies heavily on non-literary evidence to reconstruct Trajan's reign. Archaeological discoveries, epigraphic inscriptions, and numismatics (the study of coins) provide crucial corroborating and supplementary information, allowing scholars to piece together a more comprehensive picture of his life, policies, and military achievements.

Early Life & Origins

Birthplace and Lineage

Marcus Ulpius Traianus was born on September 18, AD 53 (though AD 56 is also suggested) in Italica, a municipium in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica, located in present-day Andalusia, Spain. Despite Cassius Dio's description of him as "an Iberian," modern scholars, supported by ancient sources, have reconstructed his Italic lineage. His family, the gens Ulpia and Traii, originated from Tuder in the Umbria region of central Italy, with epigraphic and linguistic evidence confirming their Osco-Umbrian roots.

Family Background

Trajan's father, also named Marcus Ulpius Traianus, was a distinguished senator and general who commanded Legio X Fretensis under Vespasian during the First Jewish-Roman War. His mother was Marcia, a Roman noblewoman from the gens Marcia, and sister-in-law to Emperor Titus. Trajan's elder sister was Ulpia Marciana, and his niece was Salonia Matidia. The family's Roman home, the Domus Traiana, was situated on the Aventine Hill.

Formative Years

Details of Trajan's early formative years are sparse, but it is believed he spent his initial years in Italica before moving to Rome. He likely returned to Italica temporarily during his father's governorship of Baetica (circa 64–65 AD). The Ulpii family, lacking a strong local power base in Italica, forged crucial alliances in Baetica, Tarraconensis, and Narbonense, notably through his wife, Pompeia Plotina. These alliances were often cemented in Rome, highlighting the interconnectedness of Roman elite society.

Military Career & Rise to Power

Early Military Service

Trajan steadily ascended through the ranks of the Roman army, serving in critical frontier regions. From 76–77 AD, he was a Tribunus legionis in Syria under his father's governorship. He then transferred to an unspecified Rhine province, where Pliny the Younger suggests he engaged in active combat. His early appointment as ordinary consul for the year 91, a rarity for non-dynastic members, underscores his father's prominence and influence within the Flavian dynasty.

Key Alliances and Marriage

Around 86 AD, Trajan became a co-guardian to his young cousins Hadrian and Paulina after the death of Aelius Afer. This connection would prove pivotal for Hadrian's future. During this period, Trajan brought the renowned architect and engineer Apollodorus of Damascus to Rome. He also married Pompeia Plotina, a noblewoman from Nîmes, though their marriage remained childless.

Adoption and Succession

In 89 AD, as legate of Legio VII Gemina in Hispania Tarraconensis, Trajan demonstrated loyalty by supporting Emperor Domitian against the coup attempt by Antonius Saturninus. Following Domitian's assassination, the elderly and childless Nerva, unpopular with the army, adopted Trajan as his heir in 97 AD. This adoption, presented as a recognition of Trajan's military merits, may have been influenced by the Praetorian Guard's pressure. Trajan's subsequent execution of Praetorian Prefect Aelianus upon Nerva's death suggests a calculated consolidation of power, marking his accession as a successful, albeit perhaps forceful, transition.

Imperial Governance

Senate Relations

Trajan's ceremonial entry into Rome in 99 AD was notably understated, a deliberate move to contrast with previous emperors and foster consensus with the Senate. He granted a direct gift of money to the plebs but reduced the traditional donative to the troops by half. While he publicly exhorted the Senate to share in the empire's caretaking, a notion celebrated on coinage, Pliny the Younger candidly admitted that "everything depends on the whims of a single man." Trajan's rule, though autocratic, was presented with a deferential posture towards his peers.

Optimus Princeps

Trajan's popularity among the senatorial class eventually led to the bestowal of the honorific optimus, "the best," appearing on coins from 105 AD. This title primarily acknowledged his role as a benefactor, such as returning confiscated property. While the epithet optimus princeps had been used before, Trajan was the only emperor officially honored with it. Political writers like Pliny and Dio Chrysostom portrayed him as a virtuous monarch who ruled through moderation rather than insolence, upholding traditional hierarchies.

Centralizing Authority

A significant trend during Trajan's reign was the expansion of imperial authority into areas traditionally managed by the Senate. For instance, he converted the senatorial provinces of Achaea and Bithynia into imperial ones. This decision was driven by concerns over excessive spending on public works by local magnates and general mismanagement by proconsuls appointed by the Senate, highlighting his commitment to efficient, centralized governance.

Monumental Projects

Engineering Marvels

Trajan was a prolific and versatile builder, with many of his most ambitious projects designed by the brilliant architect Apollodorus of Damascus. Among these was a massive bridge over the Danube, crucial for military movements regardless of weather conditions. His efforts in the Iron Gates region of the Danube also led to the creation or enlargement of a boardwalk road cut into the cliff face and a canal circumventing rapids, significantly improving infrastructure for military and trade purposes.

Rome's Grandeur

In Rome, Trajan's Forum stood as the largest of its kind, commemorating his Dacian victories and largely financed by their spoils. Its construction required the removal of parts of the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills. Apollodorus's design included a triumphal arch, a vast forum space, a monumental basilica, and the iconic Trajan's Column, which depicted the Dacian Wars in intricate bas-reliefs. The complex also housed Trajan's Market and adjacent brick markets, remaining in use for over 500 years and admired by later emperors.

Provincial Infrastructure

Beyond Rome, Trajan's building initiatives extended throughout the Empire. He constructed numerous triumphal arches and vital roads, such as the Via Traiana (an extension of the Via Appia) and the Via Traiana Nova, a military road in the newly annexed province of Arabia. In Egypt, he was active in constructing and embellishing buildings, with his cartouche appearing on temples at Dendera and Esna. He also built palatial villas outside Rome and oversaw the construction of a significant bath complex and the Aqua Traiana aqueduct.

Public Welfare & Economy

Games and Amusements

Trajan understood the importance of public entertainment for maintaining popular contentment. He undertook a "massive reconstruction" of the Circus Maximus, enhancing its capacity and replacing wooden seating with stone. In 108 or 109 AD, he celebrated his Dacian victory with 123 days of games, involving 10,000 gladiators and the slaughter of thousands of animals. This careful management of spectacles, alongside the provision of the corn dole, aimed to satisfy both the collective populace and individual citizens.

The Alimenta Program

A hallmark of Trajan's philanthropic rule was the formalization of the alimenta, a comprehensive welfare program. This initiative provided cash, food, and subsidized education to orphans and impoverished children throughout Italy. The program was financed through a combination of Dacian War booty, estate taxes, and private philanthropy. It also indirectly relied on mortgages secured against Italian farms, where landowners received imperial funds in exchange for annual repayments to the alimentary fund.

Currency Reforms

In 107 AD, Trajan devalued the Roman currency, reducing the silver content of the denarius from 93.5% to 89.0%, a drop from 3.04 grams to 2.88 grams of actual silver. This devaluation, coupled with the immense gold and silver acquired from the Dacian Wars, enabled him to mint significantly more denarii than his predecessors. He also removed pre-Neronian silver denarii from circulation. This monetary policy likely had a political intent, facilitating planned increases in both civil and military expenditures.

Policy on Christians

Judicial Approach

During a period of peace following the Dacian War, Trajan engaged in correspondence with Pliny the Younger, then governor of Bithynia and Pontus, regarding the treatment of Christians. Trajan instructed Pliny to continue prosecutions if warranted, but explicitly forbade accepting anonymous or malicious denunciations. This policy reflected his commitment to justice and "the spirit of the age," aiming to prevent unfounded accusations while still addressing the perceived threat of Christianity.

Refusal to Recant

Pliny's reports from Pontus around AD 112 indicated that the "contagion" of Christianity was spreading widely, affecting all demographics. His practice was to offer accused Christians an opportunity to deny their faith. Those who refused to recant, curse Christ, or offer prayers to the Roman gods or Trajan's statue were executed for "obstinacy." Roman citizens who persisted were sent to Rome for trial, acknowledging that genuine Christians would not perform these acts of recantation.

Military Campaigns

The Dacian Wars

Trajan's earliest and most celebrated conquests were the two wars against Dacia, a region that had long posed a strategic threat to Rome. The first war (101–102 AD) reduced Dacia to a client kingdom, forcing King Decebalus to surrender territory, Roman runaways, and war machines. Despite this, Decebalus soon rearmed and formed anti-Roman alliances, leading to the second war (105 AD). This campaign culminated in the systematic storming of Dacian fortresses, the capture and destruction of Sarmizegetusa Regia, and Decebalus's eventual suicide. The immense spoils, including vast amounts of gold and silver from Dacia's mines, significantly bolstered Rome's finances.

Nabataean Annexation

In 106 AD, the death of Rabbel II Soter, a Roman client king, provided the impetus for the annexation of the Nabataean Kingdom. While the precise reasons remain debated, epigraphic evidence points to a military operation involving forces from Syria and Egypt. By 107 AD, Roman legions were stationed around Petra and Bosra, extending as far south as Hegra. This annexation created the province of Arabia Petraea, encompassing modern southern Jordan and northwest Saudi Arabia, and saw the construction of the Via Traiana Nova, a crucial military road. This move completed the provincialization of the entire Roman East west of the Euphrates, shifting towards direct imperial rule.

The Parthian Campaign

Trajan's final and most ambitious campaign began in 113 AD, provoked by Parthia's installation of an unacceptable king in Armenia. While some historians suggest economic motives, such as controlling the Indian trade route, others emphasize territorial annexation, prestige, and the emulation of Alexander the Great's Eastern conquests. Strategically, it aimed to secure a more defensible Eastern frontier. The campaign was immensely costly, requiring ten legions. Trajan annexed Armenia, deposed Parthamasiris, and then launched a Mesopotamian campaign, capturing Nisibis and Batnae, and establishing the province of Mesopotamia. He advanced to the Persian Gulf, receiving the submission of Charax and declaring Babylon a new province. However, widespread revolts, including the Diaspora Revolt by Jewish communities, forced Trajan to retreat. His health failed during the siege of Hatra, and he delegated Eastern operations to Lusius Quietus, who successfully suppressed the Jewish unrest in Judaea (the "Kitos War").

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References

DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian".

Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".

Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319â322.

Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2â5, etc.

modern GazipaÅa in Cilicia afterwards called Trajanopolis

Cassius Dio, Book 68, 3â4.

W. Williams, Pliny the Younger, Correspondence with Trajan from Bithynia, Epistles X, Warminster, 1990.

NoreÃ±a, Carlos F. (2007). "The Social Economy of Pliny's Correspondence with Trajan". American Journal of Philology, 128, 239â277, p. 251.

The epitome de Caesaribus names Trajan's grandfather simply as Ulpius, without giving his praenomen or cognomen.

Her name is inferred from the cognomen of Marcus Ulpius Traianus. According to Antonio Caballos Rufino, she was named Traia or Traiana and was the sister or daughter of an epigraphically attested M.Traius C.Filii.

Roman-Italic migration in Spain, in The origins of the Social War, Emilio Gabba

"... The Greek historian Cassius Dio made the baseless assertion that Trajan was an Iberian...'", Colonial elites: Rome and Spain, Ronald Syme, 1970, p. 22.

Trajan, Mason Hammond, Britannica

Chase, George Davis (1897). "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII, pp. 103â184.

The Imperial Families of Ancient Rome. (2019). Maxwell Craven, Fonthill Media. Table XVIII, p. 156.

Augustan History, Life of Hadrian 2.5â6

Eugen Cizek, "Tacite face Ã Trajan", available at [1], pp. 127/128. Retrieved 20 July 2014.

Fritz Heichelheim, Cedric Veo, Allen Ward,(1984), The History of the Roman People, pp. 353, 354 Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.

Feriale Duranum 1.14-15: "V K[al](endas) [Feb]rarias... ob imperium [Divi Traiani]."

Ryan K. Balot, ed., A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought.John Wiley & Sons, 2012.

N. J. E. Austin & N. B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military & Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople. London: Routledge, 2002, p. 177.

Å aÅ¡el, Jaroslav. 1973 "Trajan's Canal at the Iron Gate". The Journal of Roman Studies. 63:80â85.

Fritz Heichelheim, Cedric Veo, Allen Ward,(1984) History of the Roman People, p. 382, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

CarbÃ³ GarcÃa, Juan RamÃ³n. " Dacia Capta: particularidades de un proceso de conquista y romanizaciÃ³n." Habis, 41, 275â292 (2010).

MelÃ©ndez, Javier Bermejo, Santiago Robles Esparcia, and Juan M. Campos Carrasco. "Trajano fundador. El Ãºltimo impulso colonizador del imperio." Onoba. Revista de ArqueologÃa y AntigÃ¼edad 1 (2013).

Michael Alexander Speidel: "Bellicosissimus Princeps". In: Annette NÃ¼nnerich-Asmus ed., Traian. Ein Kaiser der Superlative am Beginn einer Umbruchzeit? Mainz 2002, pp. 23/40.

E. J. Keall, Parthian Nippur and Vologases' Southern Strategy: A Hypothesis. Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 95, No. 4 (Oct. â Dec. 1975), pp. 620â632.

James J. Bloom, The Jewish Revolts Against Rome, A.D. 66â135: A Military Analysis. McFarland, 2010, p. 191.

Christer Bruun, "the Spurious 'Expeditio Ivdaeae' under Trajan". Zeitschrift fÃ¼r Papyrologie und Epigraphik 93 (1992) 99â106.

Claride, Amaanda, Hadrian's lost Temple of Trajan, in: "Hadrian's Succession and the Monuments of Trajan", edited by Thorsten Opper, The British Museum, 2016, pp. 5 - 19.

D. S. Potter, The Inscriptions on the Bronze Herakles from Mesene: Vologeses IV's War with Rome and the Date of Tacitus' "Annales". Zeitschrift fÃ¼r Papyrologie und Epigraphik Bd. 88, (1991), pp. 277â290.

Eutropius, Breviarium, 8.5.3.

Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. Ed. Jonathan Dewald. Vol. 4. New York, NY:Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004. p 94-96.

Robert Mankin, "Edward Gibbon: Historian in Space", A Companion to Enlightenment Historiography, Leiden: Brill, 2013, p. 34.

J.E. Lendon, "Three Emperors and the Roman Imperial Regime", The Classical Journal 94 (1998) pp. 87â93.

Smallwood, E. M. (1962). Palestine c. AD 115-118. Historia: Zeitschrift fÃ¼r Alte Geschichte, (H. 4), 500-510.

Pius, A., Italica, H., Sabina, V., Aelius, L., Hadrianus, P. A., Augustus, C. P. A. T. H., ... & Paulina, D. Roman imperial dynasties. Nerva, 96, 98.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Trajan Wikipedia page

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Imperator Optimus

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Imperial Governance 🏛️

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🏆 Optimus Princeps

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Monumental Projects 🏗️

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Public Welfare & Economy 💰

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Policy on Christians ✝️

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Trajan: An Overview

The 'Best Ruler'

Imperial Expansion

Builder and Benefactor

Historical Sources

Literary Accounts

Contemporary Perspectives

Non-Literary Evidence

Early Life & Origins

Birthplace and Lineage

Family Background

Formative Years

Military Career & Rise to Power

Early Military Service

Key Alliances and Marriage

Adoption and Succession

Imperial Governance

Senate Relations

Optimus Princeps

Centralizing Authority

Monumental Projects

Engineering Marvels

Rome's Grandeur

Provincial Infrastructure

Public Welfare & Economy

Games and Amusements

The Alimenta Program

Currency Reforms

Policy on Christians

Judicial Approach

Refusal to Recant

Military Campaigns

The Dacian Wars

Nabataean Annexation

The Parthian Campaign

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice