Forging the Union

📅 The Army in April 1861

At the outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861, the U.S. Army was a small, dispersed force. It consisted of ten infantry regiments, four artillery, two cavalry, two dragoon, and one mounted rifle regiment. Out of 197 companies, 179 were stationed across 79 isolated posts in the Western United States, with only 18 garrisons east of the Mississippi River, primarily along the Canadian border and East Coast. The total active force numbered just 16,367 servicemen, including 1,108 commissioned officers. Notably, approximately 20% of these officers, predominantly Southerners, resigned to join the Confederate Army.

🎓 West Point Loyalties

The conflict saw many United States Military Academy graduates return to service. While their loyalties were divided, a significant number rejoined the Union. Accounts vary slightly, but around 92 to 99 graduates joined the Confederacy, while 102 to 114 returned to the Union forces. This group included future luminaries such as Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman for the Union, and Braxton Bragg for the Confederacy. Robert E. Lee, offered command of Union forces, famously declined to fight against his native Virginia, eventually leading the Confederate Army.

📢 Lincoln's Call and Expansion

With the secession of Southern states, President Abraham Lincoln initially called for 75,000 state troops for three months to quell the insurrection and defend Washington, D.C. This call forced border states to declare allegiance, leading to four more secessions and an eleven-state Confederacy. The war quickly surpassed all initial expectations in duration and scope. By July 22, 1861, Congress authorized a volunteer army of up to 500,000 troops. Initial enthusiasm from patriotic Northerners, abolitionists, and immigrants (including over 10,000 German Americans and many French Americans) easily met this demand. However, as the war continued, the reliance shifted to money bounties and forced conscription. An estimated 100,000 white soldiers from within Confederate states also served in Union units.

🎖️ Regulars vs. Volunteers

The vast majority of Union soldiers were volunteers. The pre-war Regular Army, numbering about 16,400, grew to only 21,699 by war's end, with most new personnel preferring volunteer service. Regulars, due to their experience, were often considered elite troops and held in reserve. Public perception, rooted in Jeffersonian ideals, favored the "citizen soldier" over standing armies, leading many to attribute Union victory to volunteers rather than regular army leadership. Despite this, regulars formed a critical foundation, acting as rearguards in early defeats and training volunteers in administrative and logistical matters. Their performance in battle, such as at Gettysburg's Wheatfield, earned them immense admiration, setting a standard for all Union soldiers.

⭐ Officer Corps

Union Army commissioned officers were categorized into general, field, and company-grade ranks. General officers included lieutenant generals (a rank added in March 1864), major generals, and brigadier generals. Field officers comprised colonels, lieutenant colonels, and majors, while company officers included captains, first lieutenants, and second lieutenants. Line officers (artillery, cavalry, infantry) outranked staff officers, except in specific staff assignments. Regular general officers also outranked volunteer general officers of the same grade, regardless of commission date.

Officer appointments varied: the President commissioned all regular officers and volunteer general officers, while volunteer field and company-grade officers could be commissioned by the President or state governors. Company officers were often elected by their men, a tradition stemming from militia practices and political patronage. This system sometimes led to the promotion of less militarily competent individuals. However, as the war progressed and casualties mounted, promotions increasingly shifted towards battlefield performance. Officers, due to their leadership roles and visibility, often sustained a higher percentage of battle wounds. Notable field leaders included Nathaniel Lyon, William Rosecrans, George Henry Thomas, William Tecumseh Sherman, Phil Sheridan, and Benjamin F. Butler.

💪 Enlisted Ranks

Non-commissioned officers (NCOs) were crucial for maintaining order and alignment during marches and battles. Sergeants, in particular, served as general guides and were ideally selected from the most distinguished soldiers. NCOs were also responsible for training individual soldiers and, in the volunteer forces, often took on this role from less experienced officers. They also protected the regimental colors, which served as a rally point. Staff NCO positions included quartermaster sergeant, ordnance sergeant, and commissary sergeant.

Volunteer NCOs, initially appointed as regiments formed, often had informal relationships with their men. Discipline was less strict than in the regular army, and many NCOs, like their officers, lacked prior military experience. Training occurred during off-duty hours, often using manuals like Hardee's Tactics. As the war progressed, NCOs gained valuable experience, and promotions became increasingly based on battlefield performance.

🤝 Southern Unionists

Within the Confederate states, a significant number of Southerners opposed the Confederate cause, known as Southern Unionists, Union Loyalists, or Lincoln's Loyalists. States like Tennessee (especially East Tennessee), Virginia (including what would become West Virginia), and North Carolina harbored the largest Unionist populations, particularly in Southern Appalachia. As many as 100,000 men from Confederate-controlled territories served in the Union Army or pro-Union guerrilla groups. These Unionists often differed socially, culturally, and economically from the dominant planter class of the pre-war South.

🌐 Ethnic Diversity

The Union Army was remarkably diverse. Native-born white Americans constituted roughly two-thirds of the soldiers, with the remaining third comprising various ethnic groups, including a large number of immigrants. Approximately 25% of white servicemen were foreign-born, largely due to heavy immigration in the 1850s to the Northeastern states. German immigrants formed the largest group, with a million arrivals between 1850 and 1860, many of whom were "Forty-Eighters." Nearly as many Irish immigrants arrived during the same period. Immigrant soldiers were highly enthusiastic, driven by patriotism and a desire for steady income. To foster loyalty, several generals were appointed from these communities, such as Franz Sigel (German) and Michael Corcoran (Irish).

🇮🇹 Italian Americans

The vast majority of Italian Americans served in the Union Army due to demographic and ideological reasons. Notable Italian American generals included Edward Ferrero and Francis B. Spinola. Six Italian Americans received the Medal of Honor, including Colonel Luigi Palma di Cesnola, who later directed the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Many Italian Americans were recruited from New York City. Brigadier General Edward Ferrero commanded the 51st New York Regiment and later led brigades and divisions, including a division of the United States Colored Troops. Colonel Enrico Fardella was brevetted brigadier general. Francis B. Spinola recruited four regiments in New York and commanded the Spinola Brigade and later the Excelsior Brigade. The Garibaldi Guard (39th New York Infantry), composed of Italian and other European volunteers, wore red shirts and bersaglieri plumes, carrying both Union and Italian flags. Giuseppe Garibaldi himself, a popular figure, offered his services to President Lincoln and was offered a major general's commission. Colonel Luigi Palma di Cesnola, a Crimean War veteran, commanded the 4th New York Cavalry and established a military school in New York City. Over 200 Italians served as officers in the U.S. Army.

✊ African Americans

By 1860, the U.S. Black population included four million enslaved and half a million free individuals. Initially, free Black men in the North were barred from federal service due to prejudices and President Lincoln's concerns about angering white Northerners and border states. However, Lincoln eventually authorized the first official Black enlistment system in late 1862, leading to the formation of the United States Colored Troops (USCT).

Before official enlistment, many Black individuals volunteered as cooks, nurses, and in other informal roles. Several states raised volunteer Black regiments, such as the 1st Kansas Colored Infantry Regiment (the first Black regiment to engage in combat), the 1st Louisiana Native Guard (formed from freedmen and escaped slaves after the Capture of New Orleans), and the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment, which gained fame for its valor at the Battle of Fort Wagner. Their courageous efforts helped to dismantle the perception that Black soldiers were a liability, ultimately leading to approximately 200,000 Black soldiers serving in the Union Army.

Despite their service, Black soldiers faced significant discrimination. They were often assigned to menial labor, sometimes given inferior weapons, and paid less than white soldiers ($10 vs. $16 per month) until Congress mandated equal pay in June 1864. Black units were predominantly led by white officers, with only a hundred or so Black men becoming officers, none rising above the rank of major. If captured by Confederate forces, Black soldiers faced the severe risks of re-enslavement or summary execution.

♀️ Women's Contributions

Women played vital, though often unofficial, roles in the Union Army's success. Hundreds disguised themselves as men to enlist and fight, with some serving throughout the entire war undetected. Thousands of white and Black women also served as camp followers, providing essential services as cooks, laundresses, and nurses. Many were wives or relatives of soldiers, caring for their personal needs and the well-being of others.

A more formal role was the vivandière, who evolved from a sutler to a battlefield supporter, bringing water, carrying regimental colors, rallying troops, and providing first aid. "Daughters of the regiment," often literally the daughters of officers, served as mascots, inspiring men through their presence and shared hardships. Notable women who accompanied Union armies included Anna Etheridge, Marie Tepe, and Nadine Turchin.

Inspired by Florence Nightingale, many women sought formal nursing roles, initially facing resistance due to societal prejudices. However, Congress eventually approved women as nurses, with Dorothea Dix appointed Superintendent of Army Nurses, establishing hiring guidelines and training programs. Nursing was hazardous, with long hours, exposure to deadly diseases, and proximity to battlefields, leading to disabilities or death for many. Despite challenges and clashes with male medical officers, tens of thousands of women, including Clara Barton, Susie King Taylor, Mary Edwards Walker, and Louisa May Alcott, served as Union Army nurses.

Women were also crucial in espionage, acting as spies, scouts, smugglers, and saboteurs. Initially underestimated, their activities were often kept secret, and documentation destroyed, leaving many identities unknown. Famous examples include Harriet Tubman, Mary Louvestre, Pauline Cushman, Elizabeth Van Lew, and Mary Bowser.

✉️ Adjutant General's Department

The Adjutant General's Department (AGD) managed military correspondence between the President, Secretary of War, General-in-Chief, and the rest of the army. Its functions also included administering recruitment, overseeing chaplain appointments, maintaining personnel records, and issuing instruction books and forms. During the war, some responsibilities were spun off to new offices, such as the Provost Marshal General's Bureau (for white recruitment, conscription, and desertion suppression) and the Commissioner for the Exchange of Prisoners. The Bureau of Colored Troops was created within the AGD to oversee the United States Colored Troops. In the war's final year, the AGD was tasked with collecting and editing documents for The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies.

Initially, the AGD was small, with fourteen regular officers. It expanded significantly, with the Adjutant General's rank raised to major-general and the addition of numerous volunteer assistant adjutant generals for corps, divisions, and brigades. Despite rapid growth and being perpetually understaffed, the AGD competently handled its responsibilities with minimal disruption and fewer conflicts with field commanders compared to other departments, largely due to its well-established authority and limited involvement in controversial procurement or emerging technologies. Colonel Lorenzo Thomas served as Adjutant General for the entire war, though Assistant Adjutant General Colonel Edward D. Townsend effectively acted as AG in Washington from March 1863 onward.

⚖️ Bureau of Military Justice

An office of the Judge Advocate existed in the U.S. Army since its founding, but it was not until after the Civil War began that Congress formally authorized a Judge Advocate General (JAG) and created the Bureau of Military Justice. This bureau served as a de facto department and precursor to a full Judge Advocate General's Department. Its primary functions included conducting courts-martial and inquiries, codifying the laws of war and U.S. military laws, reviewing court-martial records, and asserting military commission jurisdiction over civilians during wartime.

To meet the demands of a vastly expanded army, Congress authorized a JAG with the rank of colonel and volunteer judge advocates for each field army in July 1862. These judge advocates advised commanders, prosecuted offenses, and maintained court-martial records. A year later, the Bureau of Military Justice was formally established with an appellate function, headed by a brigadier general JAG and an assistant JAG. The bureau successfully managed the increased volume and complexity of legal matters. Key accomplishments included the creation of the Lieber Code and the compilation of U.S. military law into a single digest. The controversial use of military commissions to try civilians was a significant issue, later addressed by Ex parte Milligan in 1866. Joseph Holt was formally appointed JAG in September 1862, playing a crucial role in expanding the office and overseeing important trials, though he faced criticism for his handling of President Lincoln's assassins' trial.

🌍 Freedmen's Bureau

In March 1865, Congress established the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, commonly known as the Freedmen's Bureau. Its mandate was to address the needs of all Black freedmen and white refugees, and to manage abandoned lands or those acquired by the United States within the rebel states. The bureau was led by a commissioner, with an assistant commissioner for each rebel state, and a small staff. Military officers could also be assigned to duty on behalf of the bureau. Major General Oliver Otis Howard was appointed to head the bureau from its inception throughout its existence. Despite controversies during the Reconstruction era and some shortcomings in relief provision, the bureau's most significant contribution was providing education to many Black individuals and poor whites.

🌉 Corps of Engineers

The Corps of Engineers, though a small part of the army before the Civil War, played a critical role in the conflict and for the nation. It was responsible for running the United States Military Academy at West Point, which supplied officers to all branches, with top graduates commissioned into the Corps. Engineers were involved in both military engineering (fortifications, harbor defenses) and civil engineering (canals, bridges). This dual focus, however, sometimes diverted efforts from the war. During battles, Corps personnel acted as combat engineers, constructing pontoon bridges, repairing roads, digging trenches, and conducting reconnaissance. The Corps' influence extended beyond its size, as many prominent Union officers, including McClellan and Meade, were engineer-trained and used their expertise to shape battle outcomes.

Pre-war, the Corps had 48 officers and one company of 150 engineer troops (Company A), which guarded President Lincoln at his first inauguration. Company A was structured with sergeants (master-workmen), corporals (overseers), musicians, first-class privates (artificers), and second-class privates (laborers). In August 1861, Congress authorized three more companies, forming the 1st Engineer Battalion, and increased the Corps' officer ranks. In March 1863, the Corps of Topographical Engineers merged with the Corps of Engineers, further revising its structure to include a brigadier-general as Chief Engineer and an expanded officer corps. While the US Engineer Battalion served ably with the Army of the Potomac, it was insufficient for the army's widespread needs. Volunteer engineer regiments were formed, but much engineering work was still carried out by line soldiers under engineer guidance.

📜 References