What was the primary conflict that defined the War of the Straits, also known as the Third Genoese-Venetian War?

The War of the Straits, fought between 1350 and 1355, was a major conflict between the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa. This war was the third in a series of confrontations between these two powerful Italian maritime republics, driven by intense commercial and political rivalry.

What were the main geographical areas of contention that led to the War of the Straits?

The primary areas of contention were the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. Control over passage through the Bosporus straits, which gave the conflict its name, and the Genoese seizure of strategic islands like Chios and Phocaea were key triggers for the war.

What specific events in the Black Sea precipitated the outbreak of the War of the Straits?

The war was precipitated by conflicts over Genoese activities in the northern Black Sea, specifically concerning the trading posts of Caffa and Tanais. Disputes over control of passage through the Bosporus straits and the Genoese acquisition of Chios and Phocaea were also immediate causes.

What was the historical context of the rivalry between Venice and Genoa leading up to the War of the Straits?

The rivalry stemmed from their positions as major Italian maritime republics competing for trade dominance. This competition had previously led to conflicts like the War of Curzola (1296-1299), and the Treaty of Nymphaeum in 1261, an alliance between Genoa and the Byzantine Empire against Venice, highlighted the depth of this rivalry.

How did the Treaty of Nymphaeum in 1261 contribute to the ongoing conflict between Venice and Genoa?

The Treaty of Nymphaeum was an offensive alliance between Genoa and the Byzantine Empire, specifically aimed against Venice. This treaty allowed Genoa to establish a significant commercial presence, including a colony at Pera across from Constantinople, and to gain commercial hegemony in the Black Sea, directly challenging Venetian interests.

What was the significance of the Black Sea trade for both Venice and Genoa during this period?

The Black Sea trade was crucial for both republics as a vital source of grain, which was essential for feeding their growing urban populations. Control over this trade route meant economic and strategic advantage.

What role did the Golden Horde play in the events leading up to the War of the Straits?

The Golden Horde, under rulers like Jani Beg, influenced the region by expelling Italian merchants from Tanais in 1343. Later, their attacks on Caffa (1344 onwards) caused a temporary rapprochement between Venice and Genoa, but subsequent Venetian attempts to secure exclusive access to Tanais angered the Genoese, contributing to the war's escalation.

What were the key Genoese possessions or bases mentioned in the context of the war?

Key Genoese possessions included the trading colonies of Caffa (modern Feodosia) and Pera (Galata) in the Black Sea, and the islands of Chios and Phocaea in the Aegean Sea. These provided strategic footholds and commercial hubs.

What was the "Maona of Chios and Phocaea"?

The Maona of Chios and Phocaea was a joint-stock company, involving private contractors and the Genoese state, that took control of the islands of Chios and Phocaea after their capture by Simone Vignoso in 1346. This action provided Genoa with strategic bases in the western Aegean.

How did the Black Death affect the resources of Venice and Genoa at the start of the war?

The Black Death had a devastating impact on both cities. Genoa lost approximately half its population (30,000 out of 60,000-70,000), while Venice's population dropped from about 120,000 to 65,000. This depletion of manpower necessitated conscription and hiring of substitutes for their fleets.

When did Venice officially declare war on Genoa, and what were the immediate financial measures taken?

Venice declared war on Genoa on August 6, 1350. On the same day, a compulsory loan was decreed to finance the war effort, indicating the significant financial strain anticipated.

Who commanded the initial Venetian fleet at the start of the war?

Marco Ruzzini was elected Captain General of the Sea and commanded the initial Venetian fleet of 35 galleys, setting sail for Greece at the end of August 1350.

What happened during the initial clash at Castro in September 1350?

The Venetian fleet under Marco Ruzzini attacked a Genoese fleet of 14 merchant galleys near Castro. While the Venetians captured ten ships, the indiscipline of their conscripted crews, who abandoned the battle to plunder the captured vessels, allowed the remaining ships to escape.

What was the outcome of the Genoese attack on Negroponte (Chalkis) in October 1350?

A Genoese fleet under Filippo Doria successfully launched a surprise attack on the city of Negroponte, burning its harbor. However, the citadel resisted the attack, and the local Venetian governor, Tommaso Viadro, fled the field, later facing accusations of cowardice.

Which major powers did Venice seek as allies against Genoa?

Due to its diminished resources, Venice sought alliances with the Crown of Aragon and the Byzantine Empire. An attempt to secure support from the Republic of Pisa was unsuccessful.

What was the nature of the alliance between Venice and the Crown of Aragon?

Concluded in January 1351, the treaty stipulated that Aragon would equip a fleet of 18 galleys for operations in the Tyrrhenian Sea, with Venice providing financial support and renting an additional 12 Aragonese galleys. The alliance was intended to last for several years, with neither party allowed to sign a separate peace.

Why was Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos of the Byzantine Empire hesitant to join Venice initially?

Kantakouzenos was initially hesitant because he was preoccupied with a war against the Serbian Empire and had received assurances from Genoa. He only later joined the war after perceived provocations from the Genoese of Pera, who began attacking Constantinople's walls.

What was the strategic significance of the Genoese alliance with the Ottoman Sultan Orhan?

The alliance with Orhan provided the Genoese with military support, including 1,000 archers, and protection for Pera. Crucially for European history, Genoese ships facilitated the Ottoman expansion into Europe across the Bosporus, marking the beginning of a long-lasting alliance.

What happened during the Battle of the Bosporus in February 1352?

The allied fleet of Venice and Aragon met the Genoese fleet near the Princes' Islands. Despite being outnumbered, the Genoese achieved a nominal victory, though both sides suffered heavy losses. This battle effectively thwarted the allies' attempt to dislodge the Genoese from their control of the Black Sea entrance.

What was the outcome for the Byzantine Empire following the Battle of the Bosporus?

Abandoned by their allies after the battle, the Byzantines were forced to make peace with Genoa in May 1352. Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos ended the war with Genoa, prohibited Venetian and Aragonese ships from his ports, and renewed previous privileges granted to Genoa.

How did the conflict shift geographically after Byzantium's exit from the war?

With the Byzantine Empire out of the conflict, the focus of the war shifted to the Western Mediterranean, particularly concerning the Crown of Aragon's interests in Sardinia.

What was the role of Sardinia in the latter stages of the War of the Straits?

Sardinia became a key battleground as Peter IV of Aragon sought to consolidate his rule against Genoese influence and local lords. The city of Alghero submitted to Genoese rule, leading to an Aragonese siege and eventual capture, with Venetian support.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Alghero in August 1353?

The allied Aragonese-Venetian fleet, commanded by Bernat de Cabrera and Niccolò Pisani, inflicted a significant defeat on the Genoese fleet under Antonio Grimaldi. Following this naval victory, Alghero surrendered to Aragonese forces.

What major political change occurred in Genoa following the setbacks in Sardinia?

The Genoese setbacks led to the resignation of Doge Giovanni II Valente. Facing internal strife and financial strain, Genoa submitted to the rule of Giovanni Visconti, Archbishop and Lord of Milan, in October 1353, seeking stability and financial support.

Describe Paganino Doria's Adriatic raid in 1354.

Paganino Doria led a Genoese fleet into the Adriatic Sea, raiding Dalmatian islands like Hvar and Korčula, and sacking Poreč in Istria. This raid was a direct challenge to Venice's sphere of influence in the Adriatic and caused significant alarm in Venice.

What happened during the Battle of Sapienza in November 1354?

The Venetian fleet under Niccolò Pisani was anchored at Sapienza island. Paganino Doria's Genoese fleet attacked the harbor entrance, breaking Venetian resistance and forcing the entire Venetian fleet to surrender. This resulted in over 4,000 Venetian deaths and 5,400 captured, marking a decisive Genoese victory.

What was the fate of Niccolò Pisani after the Battle of Sapienza?

Niccolò Pisani, though released by the Genoese, faced a tribunal in Venice. He was accused of negligence and disobedience, condemned to imprisonment and a fine, and prohibited from holding further military command. He died shortly thereafter.

What factors led to the peace treaty signed in June 1355?

Both Venice and Genoa were exhausted by the prolonged conflict. Genoa's Visconti rulers desired peace, while Venice faced pressure from Hungary over Dalmatia and internal political instability following the Doge's death and an attempted coup. These pressures facilitated mediation by the Visconti lords.

What were the key terms of the peace treaty signed on June 1, 1355?

The treaty included the release of all prisoners, compensation for losses, and the submission of future disputes to arbitration. Both sides also agreed to a three-year trade ban on Tanais, effectively forcing Venetian trade through Genoese Caffa.

What was the assessment of the peace treaty's outcome by historian Steven Epstein?

Steven Epstein characterized the treaty as one where "Neither side won anything worthy of mention," highlighting that it restored peace and established dispute resolution mechanisms but did not yield significant gains for either Venice or Genoa.

How did the War of the Straits impact Venice's relationship with Hungary?

The war's conclusion left Venice vulnerable to Hungarian demands regarding Dalmatia. King Louis of Hungary invaded Dalmatia and the Veneto, leading Venice to cede Dalmatia to Hungary in early 1358 to secure peace, as they feared Genoa might join the Hungarians.

What was the broader strategic implication of the Genoese-Ottoman alliance formed during the war?

The alliance provided the Ottomans with crucial naval support, enabling them to cross the Bosporus and begin their expansion into Europe. This marked a significant turning point in the history of Europe, contributing to the decline of the Byzantine Empire.

How did the War of the Straits serve as a precursor to the War of Chioggia?

The involvement of Hungary and Padua in the War of the Straits, and Venice's subsequent territorial concessions to Hungary, were described as a "dry run" for the dynamics and alliances that would play out in the later War of Chioggia (1378-1381).

What was the fate of Genoa's Visconti rule after the war?

Visconti rule in Genoa was short-lived. It was overthrown by an uprising shortly after the war's end, leading to the return of Simone Boccanegra to the position of Doge in November 1356.

What territorial concessions did Venice make in the aftermath of the war?

Following pressure from Hungary, Venice ceded Dalmatia to King Louis I of Hungary in 1358. This was a significant loss for Venice's territorial holdings.

What was the role of Petrarch in the context of the War of the Straits?

The poet Petrarch was sent by the Visconti of Milan to Venice in 1354 to negotiate an end to the conflict. However, his efforts were unsuccessful in preventing the continuation of hostilities.

What was the outcome of the Genoese attempt to recover Alghero in 1354?

A Genoese fleet under Filippo Doria attempted to recover Alghero but, instead of attacking the well-defended city, sacked Tripoli. This indicates a shift in strategy, possibly due to financial constraints and the difficulty of retaking the city.

What was the significance of the Venetian acquisition of Tenedos?

The Venetians acquired the island of Tenedos, strategically located at the entrance of the Dardanelles, as surety for loans made to the Byzantine emperors. This island later became a point of contention leading to further conflict with Genoa.

What were the primary belligerents in the War of the Straits?

The primary belligerents were the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa. They were supported by various allies, including the Crown of Aragon and the Byzantine Empire for Venice, and the Ottomans and Aydinids for Genoa.

What was the stated goal of the Genoese in the War of the Straits, according to Nikephoros Gregoras?

According to the Byzantine historian Nikephoros Gregoras, the Genoese intended to establish a complete monopoly on Black Sea trade, thereby excluding their Venetian rivals entirely from the region.

How did the Genoese actions in the Aegean Sea, such as the capture of Chios and Phocaea, affect Venice?

These Genoese acquisitions provided them with strategic bases in the western Aegean, counterbalancing Venice's long-established domains. This move provoked the ire of the Venetian doge, Andrea Dandolo, and heightened tensions.

What was the result of the Byzantine attempt to curb Genoese power in the conflict of 1348-1349?

The Byzantine attempt, led by Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos, backfired. The Genoese of Pera captured the rebuilt Imperial fleet, blockaded Constantinople, and gained de facto control over the passage of the Bosporus into the Black Sea.

What was the outcome of the Venetian fleet's actions in the Adriatic Sea in 1354?

Paganino Doria's Genoese fleet entered the Adriatic, raided Dalmatian islands, and sacked Poreč in Istria. This action caused significant alarm in Venice, which prepared its defenses, fearing an attack on the city itself.

What was the overall result of the War of the Straits?

The war concluded with an inconclusive peace treaty in 1355. While Genoa achieved some tactical victories, such as at the Battle of Sapienza, neither side gained significant territorial or strategic advantages, and the underlying commercial rivalries persisted.

What was the duration of the War of the Straits?

The War of the Straits lasted for five years, from 1350 to 1355.

Which Italian maritime republics were involved in the War of the Straits?

The primary Italian maritime republics involved were the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa.

What was the name of the treaty that marked the end of the War of the Straits?

The peace treaty that ended the War of the Straits was signed on June 1, 1355, with the mediation of the Visconti lords of Milan.

What was the impact of the Genoese fleet's actions on the Ottoman Empire's expansion?

Genoese ships provided the Ottoman Turks with the means to cross the Bosporus, enabling their rapid expansion into Byzantine Thrace and the Balkans. This alliance was a crucial turning point for Ottoman military operations in Europe.

What specific trade routes were central to the conflict between Venice and Genoa?

The conflict centered on control of trade routes in the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, including access through the Bosporus straits and trade posts like Caffa and Tanais.

Who was Andrea Dandolo during this period?

Andrea Dandolo was the Doge of Venice during the lead-up to the War of the Straits. He was instrumental in Venice's diplomatic preparations and expressed significant displeasure over Genoese actions in the Aegean.

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Historical Background

Treaty of Nymphaeum (1261)

The conflict's roots lie in the intense commercial and political rivalry between the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa. The 1261 Treaty of Nymphaeum, an alliance between Genoa and the Byzantine Empire, aimed to counter Venetian influence and open lucrative trade routes, particularly into the Black Sea.

Black Sea Hegemony

Genoa established vital trade colonies, such as Caffa and Tanais, securing commercial dominance in the Black Sea. This region was crucial for both states as a source of grain, essential for their burgeoning populations.

Preceding Conflicts

The War of the Straits was the third major conflict in a series of Venetian-Genoese wars. Previous clashes, like the War of Curzola (1296-1299), had established Genoese ascendancy in the Black Sea but failed to completely exclude Venetian merchants.

Diplomatic Maneuvers

Shifting Alliances

As the conflict loomed, Venice sought allies against Genoa. They secured an alliance with the Crown of Aragon, motivated by Aragonese disputes with Genoa over Sardinia, and later engaged the Byzantine Empire, which was seeking to curb Genoese influence.

Failed Peace Efforts

Despite appeals for peace from Pope Clement VI and even the poet Petrarch, diplomatic efforts proved futile. Both Venice and Genoa used negotiations primarily to delay and complete their military preparations, indicating the inevitability of war.

Financial Mobilization

Both maritime republics resorted to significant financial measures to fund their fleets. Genoa imposed a substantial loan and repurposed tax revenues, while Venice decreed compulsory loans and conscripted crews from its overseas possessions, highlighting the economic strain of prolonged warfare.

Course of the War

Initial Engagements

The war commenced in August 1350. Early clashes, such as the Battle of Castro, revealed issues with Venetian fleet discipline due to the use of conscripted crews. Genoese actions, including the capture of Chios and Phocaea, escalated tensions.

Battle of the Bosporus (1352)

A pivotal naval engagement occurred near the Bosporus. The allied Venetian-Aragonese fleet clashed with the Genoese fleet led by Paganino Doria. Despite initial allied superiority, the battle resulted in a nominal Genoese victory, though both sides suffered heavy losses, leading to Byzantium's withdrawal from the war.

Conflict in Sardinia

The war extended to the Western Mediterranean, focusing on control of Sardinia. The Battle of Alghero saw a decisive Aragonese-Venetian naval victory, leading to the surrender of Alghero to Aragonese forces.

Battle of Sapienza (1354)

Paganino Doria's fleet raided the Adriatic, culminating in the Battle of Sapienza. Here, the Genoese inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Venetian fleet commanded by Niccolò Pisani, capturing thousands of sailors and marking a significant blow to Venetian naval power.

Peace Treaty

Exhaustion and Accord

By 1355, both Venice and Genoa were financially and militarily exhausted. The Visconti rulers of Genoa sought peace, while Venice faced pressure from Hungary on its Dalmatian frontier. A peace treaty was signed on June 1, 1355, mediated by the Visconti.

Terms of Peace

The treaty mandated the release of prisoners, compensation for losses, and arbitration for future disputes. Notably, both sides agreed to a three-year trade embargo on Tanais, effectively forcing Venetian trade through Genoese Caffa. Critically, the treaty resolved little of the underlying commercial antagonism.

Aftermath and Consequences

Hungarian Pressure

The peace with Genoa left Venice vulnerable to Louis I of Hungary, who seized Dalmatia. This conflict served as a precursor to the later War of Chioggia.

Rise of the Ottomans

The prolonged conflict between Venice and Genoa weakened the Byzantine Empire significantly. The Ottoman Turks capitalized on this instability, expanding rapidly into the Balkans, aided by Genoese naval support, fundamentally altering the geopolitical landscape.

Shifting Maritime Focus

Genoa's internal strife and the decline of Black Sea trade led it to refocus on the Western Mediterranean. Venice, while retaining its independence, saw its dominance in the eastern Mediterranean challenged, setting the stage for future conflicts.

Related Conflicts

First Venetian-Genoese War

The War of Saint Sabas (1256–1270), marked by battles like Acre and Settepozzi, established the pattern of intense rivalry.

Second Venetian-Genoese War

Fought primarily in the late 13th century, culminating in the decisive Battle of Curzola (1298), which saw a Genoese victory but no clear strategic advantage.

Fourth Venetian-Genoese War

The War of Chioggia (1378–1381), a protracted and devastating conflict that threatened Venice itself, ultimately ending in a peace of exhaustion.

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References

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The Straits Showdown

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Historical Background ⏳

🤝 Treaty of Nymphaeum (1261)

💰 Black Sea Hegemony

⚖️ Preceding Conflicts

Diplomatic Maneuvers ✉️

🌍 Shifting Alliances

🕊️ Failed Peace Efforts

💰 Financial Mobilization

Course of the War 🚢

💥 Initial Engagements

🌊 Battle of the Bosporus (1352)

🏝️ Conflict in Sardinia

⚔️ Battle of Sapienza (1354)

Peace Treaty 🕊️

⚖️ Exhaustion and Accord

📜 Terms of Peace

Aftermath and Consequences 📈

🇭🇺 Hungarian Pressure

🇹🇷 Rise of the Ottomans

🧭 Shifting Maritime Focus

Related Conflicts 🔗

⚔️ First Venetian-Genoese War

⚔️ Second Venetian-Genoese War

⚔️ Fourth Venetian-Genoese War

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Historical Background

Treaty of Nymphaeum (1261)

Black Sea Hegemony

Preceding Conflicts

Diplomatic Maneuvers

Shifting Alliances

Failed Peace Efforts

Financial Mobilization

Course of the War

Initial Engagements

Battle of the Bosporus (1352)

Conflict in Sardinia

Battle of Sapienza (1354)

Peace Treaty

Exhaustion and Accord

Terms of Peace

Aftermath and Consequences

Hungarian Pressure

Rise of the Ottomans

Shifting Maritime Focus

Related Conflicts

First Venetian-Genoese War

Second Venetian-Genoese War

Fourth Venetian-Genoese War

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice