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The Americanist Lexicon

An in-depth exploration of the Americanist Phonetic Alphabet (NAPA), its historical development, and its role in transcribing the world's diverse languages.

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Introduction to NAPA

Defining Americanist Notation

Americanist phonetic notation, also recognized as the North American Phonetic Alphabet (NAPA) or simply the American Phonetic Alphabet (APA), is a specialized system for phonetic transcription. It was initially developed by a cohort of European and American anthropologists and language scientists, many of whom adhered to Neogrammarian principles. Its primary application was the meticulous transcription of indigenous languages across the Americas, though its utility quickly expanded to include languages of Europe, Slavic, Uralic, Semitic, and Caucasian language families, as well as those found in India and much of Africa. Notably, Uralicists often employ a distinct variant known as the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet.

Global Reach Beyond its Name

Despite its geographical designation, NAPA has consistently found widespread application far beyond the Americas. For instance, a specific iteration of this notation serves as the established standard for transcribing Arabic in scholarly articles published by the esteemed Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlรคndischen Gesellschaft, the official journal of the German Oriental Society. This demonstrates its adaptability and recognition within diverse linguistic research communities globally.

NAPA vs. IPA

Diacritics and Distinctions

A key characteristic distinguishing Americanist notation from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is its more extensive reliance on diacritics. While the IPA endeavors to minimize the use of diacritics, reserving them primarily for distinctions such as dental-alveolar, NAPA employs them broadly to mark numerous other phonemic distinctions crucial to the languages it transcribes. This approach reflects a different philosophical stance on phonetic representation.

Symbol Economy for Affricates

Conversely, Americanist notation often utilizes single letters to represent most coronal affricates, a practice that contrasts with the IPA's requirement for digraphs (combinations of two letters) for these sounds. This difference highlights varying strategies for achieving phonetic precision and efficiency in transcription. Over time, NAPA has progressively converged with the IPA, shedding some of its more esoteric symbols in favor of greater alignment.

Historical Origins

Early Pioneers and Evolution

The foundational elements of Americanist phonetic notation can be traced back to John Wesley Powell, who incorporated an early set of phonetic symbols in his 1880 publications on American language families. These symbols drew from the work of various phoneticians and American writers, including Pickering (1820), Cass (1821a, 1821b), Hale (1846), Lepsius (1855, 1863), Gibbs (1861), and Powell himself (1877). The influential anthropologist Franz Boas later employed a distinct set of symbols in 1911, which was significantly expanded upon by a publication from the American Anthropological Society in 1916. Further modifications and discussions were documented in articles by Bloomfield & Bolling (1927) and Herzog et al. (1934).

The Americanist notation has been prominently featured in leading academic journals such as the American Anthropologist, the International Journal of American Linguistics, and Language. For those seeking deeper understanding, valuable resources explaining these symbols and their evolution, often with comparisons across different periods, include works by Campbell (1997:xii-xiii), Goddard (1996:10โ€“16), Langacker (1972:xiii-vi), Mithun (1999:xiii-xv), and Odden (2005).

Philosophical Underpinnings

A fundamental difference between the Americanist tradition and the IPA lies in their underlying philosophies regarding character design. Americanist linguists prioritized a phonetic notation that could be readily produced using existing orthographic typefaces. This approach was considered more practical and cost-efficient, as many chosen characters were already available in Greek and East European orthographies. In contrast, the IPA, while also using Greek and Latin letters, often introduced new shapes for specific sounds, reserving diacritics for more specialized functions.

David Abercrombie (1991:44โ€“45) recounts a telling anecdote concerning the Americanist tradition:

In America phonetic notation has had a curious history. Bloomfield used IPA notation in his early book An Introduction to the Study of Language, 1914, and in the English edition of his more famous Language, 1935. But since then, a strange hostility has been shown by many American linguists to IPA notation, especially to certain of its symbols.

An interesting and significant story was once told by Carl Voegelin during a symposium held in New York in 1952 on the present state of anthropology. He told how, at the beginning of the 1930s, he was being taught phonetics by, as he put it, a "pleasant Dane", who made him use the IPA symbol for sh in ship, among others. Some while later he used those symbols in some work on an American Indian language he had done for Sapir. When Sapir saw the work he "simply blew up", Voegelin said, and demanded that in future Voegelin should use 's wedge' (as š was called), instead of the IPA symbol.

I have no doubt that the "pleasant Dane" was H. J. Uldall, one of Jones's most brilliant students, who was later to become one of the founders of glossematics, with Louis Hjelmslev. Uldall did a great deal of research into Californian languages, especially into Maidu or Nisenan. Most of the texts he collected were not published during his lifetime. It is ironic that when they were published, posthumously, by the University of California Press, the texts were "reorthographized", as the editor's introduction put it: the IPA symbols Uldall had used were removed and replaced by others.

What is strange is that the IPA symbols seem so obviously preferable to the Americanist alternatives, the 'long s' to the 's wedge', for example. As Jones often pointed out, in connected texts, for the sake of legibility diacritics should be avoided as far as possible. Many Americanist texts give the impression of being overloaded with diacritics.

One may wonder why there should be such a hostility in America to IPA notation. I venture to suggest a reason for this apparently irrational attitude. The hostility derives ultimately from the existence, in most American universities, of Speech Departments, which we do not have in Britain. Speech Departments tend to be well-endowed, large, and powerful. In linguistic and phonetic matters they have a reputation for being predominantly prescriptive, and tend to be considered by some therefore to be not very scholarly. In their publications and periodicals the notation they use, when writing of pronunciation, is that of the IPA. My belief is that the last thing a member of an American Linguistics Department wants is to be mistaken for a member of a Speech Department; but if he were to use IPA notation in his writings he would certainly lay himself open to the suspicion that he was.

Consonant Conventions (WIELD 2016)

General Principles

While no single central authority dictates Americanist notation, the Western Institute for Endangered Language Documentation (WIELD) has provided recommended conventions since 2016. These guidelines are specifically tailored for Native American languages, yet NAPA's application extends globally, including regions like Africa. Key conventions include:

  • Advanced sounds are marked with ⟨C̯⟩ and retracted with ⟨C̣⟩.
  • Geminate consonants can be ⟨C꞉⟩ or ⟨CC⟩.
  • Glottalization, such as in ⟨č̓⟩ or ⟨m̓⟩, does not distinguish ejectives from other glottalized types.
  • Palatalization is denoted by ⟨Cʸ⟩.
  • Labialization, velarization, aspiration, voicelessness, and prenasalization follow IPA conventions.
  • Pharyngeals, epiglottals, glottals, implosives, and clicks are also represented as in the IPA.

WIELD (2016) Recommendations for NAPA Consonants

  Bilabial Labio-
dental		 Dental Alveolar Retro-
flex		 Palato-
alveolar		 Alveo-
palatal		 Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal		 Glottal
Plosive voiceless p   t̯ t ṭ k̯ k q ʔ
voiced b   d̯ d ḍ ɡ̯ ɡ ɡ̇
Affricate central voiceless   pf tθ c c̣ č ć kx qx̣
c̯
voiced   dð dz dẓ ǰ dź
dz̯
lateral voiceless       ƛ          
voiced       λ          
Fricative central voiceless ɸ f θ s ṣ š ś x̯ x x̣ ħ h
s̯
voiced β v ð z ẓ ž ź ɣ̯ ɣ ɣ̇ ʕ ɦ
z̯
lateral voiceless       ł       łʸ    
voiced       ɮ            
Nasal m n̯ n ṇ ń ñ ŋ ŋ̇
Trill       r̃       ʀ
Tap     r̯ r ṛ      
Approximant central   ʋ   ɹ ɹ̣     y ẉ  
labialized     ẅ w
lateral     l̯ l ḷ lʸ  

Differences from the IPA primarily involve the use of diacritics to derive coronal and dorsal articulations from alveolar and velar bases, respectively. Additionally, NAPA employs c, j, λ, ƛ for affricates, y for its consonantal value, and r for a tap rather than a trill.

Rhotic Conventions

Simplified Rhotic Representation

In linguistic analysis, approximately 90% of languages feature only one phonemic rhotic consonant. Consequently, it is a common practice in Americanist notation, as well as in other traditions like the IPA, to transcribe rhotic consonants using the single character ⟨r⟩. While economical and phonologically sound, this simplification necessitates a careful examination of a given language's specific phonological description to ascertain the precise phonetic realization of the rhotic sound.

Common Rhotic Conventions

Alveolar Retroflex/Uvular
Approximant r ṛ
Flap ř ṛ̌
Tap ᴅ ᴅ̇
Trill r̃ ṛ̃

Other flap consonants, such as ⟨ň⟩ and ⟨l͏̌⟩, also exist within the broader Americanist framework.

Alternate Symbols

Variations in Transcription

Americanist transcription exhibits a degree of variability, with several alternate symbols commonly encountered across different scholarly works. These variations often represent the same phonetic values but use different graphic forms. Understanding these equivalences is essential for interpreting historical and contemporary Americanist texts.

  • ⟨¢⟩ may be used for ⟨c⟩ (= ⟨ts⟩), or for ⟨ð⟩.
  • ⟨č̣⟩ may be used for ⟨c̣⟩ (= ⟨tṣ⟩).
  • ⟨j⟩ may be used for ⟨ʒ⟩ (= ⟨dz⟩).
  • ⟨ǰ⟩ may be used for ⟨ǯ⟩ (= ⟨dž⟩).
  • ⟨ȷ́⟩ may be used for ⟨ʒ́⟩ (= ⟨dź⟩).
  • ⟨ƚ⟩ may be used for ⟨ł⟩.
  • ⟨φ⟩ may be used for ⟨ɸ⟩.
  • ⟨G⟩ may be used for ⟨ġ⟩.
  • ⟨X⟩ may be used for ⟨x̣⟩.
  • ʸ may be used for fronted velars (e.g., kʸ = k̯, gʸ = g̑).
  • Some transcriptions superscript the onset of doubly articulated consonants and the release of fricatives, e.g. ⟨ᵍɓ⟩, ⟨t̓ᶿ⟩.
  • There may be a distinction between laminal retroflex ⟨č̣ ṣ̌ ẓ̌⟩ and apical retroflex ⟨c̣ ṣ ẓ⟩ in some transcriptions.
  • The fronting diacritic may be a caret rather than an inverted breve, e.g. dental ⟨ṱ⟩ and palatal ⟨k̭⟩.
  • Many researchers use the x-caron (x̌) for the voiceless uvular fricative.
  • The use of the standard IPA belted l (ɬ) for the voiceless lateral fricative is becoming increasingly common.

Pullum & Ladusaw Consonants (1996)

A Snapshot of Usage

According to Pullum & Ladusaw's 1996 Phonetic Symbol Guide, typical Americanist usage for consonants at that time largely aligned with the WIELD recommendations, though it was not prescriptive. Notable aspects included some ambiguity regarding rhotics, where ⟨ṛ⟩ could represent either retroflex or uvular sounds. However, specific diacritics like ⟨ṛ̌⟩ for a retroflex flap versus ⟨ṛ̃⟩ for a uvular trill helped to clarify these distinctions. Aside from minor graphic variants and diacritic placements, this framework was largely compatible with the later WIELD guidelines. Only precomposed affricates were explicitly shown, with others potentially represented by digraphs (e.g., ⟨dz⟩).

Typical NAPA Consonant Values (1996, Not Prescriptive)

  Bilabial Labio-
dental		 Inter-
dental		 Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palato-
alveolar		 Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal		 Glottal
Stop (oral) voiceless p   t̯ t ṭ k̯ k q   ʔ
voiced b   d̯ d ḍ g̑ g ġ    
Affricate voiceless   ȼ č      
voiced   ǰ      
Lateral affricate voiceless       ƛ              
voiced       λ              
Fricative voiceless ɸ f θ s̯ s ṣ š x̯ x x̣ ħ h
voiced β v ð z̯ z ẓ ž γ̑ γ γ̇ ʕ ɦ
Lateral fricative voiceless       ł              
Nasal m ṃ n ṇ ñ ŋ ŋ̇    
Rhotic     r ṛ       ṛ  
Lateral     l ḷ      
Glide (w)           y (w)    

Ejectives and implosives generally adhere to IPA conventions, with the ejective apostrophe positioned above the base letter.

Pike Consonants (1947)

Pike's Comprehensive System

Kenneth L. Pike, a prominent figure in American linguistics, presented his own comprehensive set of consonant symbols in his 1947 work, Phonemics: A Technique for Reducing Languages to Writing. This system reflects the Americanist tradition's emphasis on detailed phonetic representation, often employing specific diacritics and character choices to capture the nuances of various speech sounds. Pike's work was influential in shaping the understanding and application of phonetic transcription within the field.

Pike (1947) Consonant Values

  Bilabial Labio-
dental		 Inter-
dental		 Alveolar Retroflex Alveolo-
palatal		 Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal		 Glottal
Stop (oral) voiceless p   t̯ t ṭ k̯ k ḳ (q) ḳ̣ ʔ
voiced b   d̯ d ḍ g̯ g g̣ (G)    
Affricate voiceless pᵽ   t̯θ ts (ȼ) tš (č)   kx    
voiced bb̶ d̯d̶ dz (ʒ) dž (ǰ)   gg̶    
Lateral affricate voiceless       tƚ (ƛ)              
voiced       dl (λ)              
Flat fricative voiceless ᵽ f θ θ̣ x̯ x x̣ ḥ h
voiced b̶ v d̶ ḍ̶ g̶̯ g̶ g̶̣ ɦ
Sibilant voiceless w̱̟ (W̟) s ṣ , ṣ̌ š
voiced w̟ z ẓ , ẓ̌ ž
Lateral fricative voiceless       ƚ̟              
voiced       l̟              
Nasal voiceless m̱ (M) ṉ (N) ṉ̃ (Ñ) ŋ̱ (Ŋ)    
voiced m n ṇ ñ ŋ    
Lateral voiceless     ƚ (L) ƚʸ      
voiced     l ḷ lʸ      
Flap voiceless     ṟ̌        
voiced ř , l͏̌ ṛ̌
Trill voiceless p̃ ṟ̃
voiced b̃ r̃ ṛ̃

Pike also detailed additional phonetic features: voiceless, voiced, and syllabic consonants could be marked as C̥, C̬, and C̩ respectively. Aspirated consonants were represented by Cʻ or C̥ʰ / C̬ʱ, and non-audible release by Vꟲ. Further distinctions included fortis (C͈) and lenis (C᷂), labialization (C̮ or Cʷ), palatalization (Ꞔ, C⁽ⁱ⁾ or Cʸ), velarization (C⁽ᵘ⁾), and pharyngealization (C̴). Other airstream mechanisms like pulmonic ingressive (C←), ejective (Cˀ), implosive (Cˁ), click (C˂), and lingual ejective (spurt) (C˃) were also accounted for.

Vowel Conventions (WIELD 2016)

WIELD's Vowel Framework

The WIELD recommendations for Americanist notation also extend to vowels and semivowels, providing a structured approach to their transcription. This framework focuses on distinctions attested in linguistic literature, ensuring practical applicability. Key aspects of WIELD's vowel conventions include:

  • No explicit distinction is made between front and central for the lowest unrounded vowels.
  • Diphthongs are typically represented as sequences of vowels or a vowel followed by a glide, e.g., ⟨ai⟩ or ⟨ay⟩, depending on the phonological analysis.
  • Nasal vowels are indicated with an ogonek, e.g., ⟨ą⟩.
  • Long vowels are marked with ⟨a꞉⟩. A three-way length distinction might be shown as ⟨a a꞉ a꞉꞉⟩ or ⟨a aꞏ a꞉⟩.
  • Primary and secondary stress are indicated by acute ⟨á⟩ and grave ⟨à⟩ accents over vowels, respectively.
  • Voicelessness, creak, murmur, and rhoticity in vowels follow IPA conventions.

WIELD (2016) Recommendations for NAPA (Semi)vowels

  Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Glide y ẅ   ẉ w
Close higher i ü ɨ ʉ ï u
lower ɪ ʊ̈ ᵻ ʊ̇ ʊ
Mid higher e ö ə ȯ ë o
lower ɛ ɔ̈ ɛ̇ ɔ̇ ʌ ɔ
Open higher æ ɒ̈ æ̇ ɑ ɒ
lower a a

Pullum & Ladusaw Vowels (1996)

Vowel Inventory

Pullum & Ladusaw's 1996 guide also outlined the typical Americanist vowel usage of the time. This representation, while not prescriptive, offers insight into the common practices for transcribing vowel sounds. It categorizes vowels by height (high, mid, low, lower-low), frontness (front, central, back), and roundedness (unround, round), providing a comprehensive inventory of the vowel space as typically employed in Americanist linguistic work.

Typical NAPA Vowel Values (1996, Not Prescriptive)

Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Glide y w
High (higher) i ü ɨ ʉ ï u
lower ɪ ᴜ̈ ᵻ ᵾ ɪ̈ ᴜ
Mid higher e ö ə ë o
lower ɛ ɔ̈ ʌ ɔ
Low æ a/ɑ
Lower-Low a ɑ ɒ

Pike Vowels (1947)

Pike's Vowel System

In his 1947 work, Kenneth L. Pike also detailed a specific set of vowel symbols, contributing to the diverse landscape of Americanist phonetic notation. His system, like his consonant chart, aimed for a precise and comprehensive representation of vowel sounds, categorizing them by height, frontness, and roundedness. This framework provided linguists with a robust tool for analyzing and transcribing the vocalic inventories of various languages.

Pike (1947) Vowel Values

Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Glide y w
High (higher) i ü ɨ ʉ ï u
lower ι ᴜ̈ ϊ ᴜ
Mid higher e ö ə ë o
lower ɛ ɔ̈ ʌ ɔ
Low higher æ
lower a ɑ ɒ

Pike's system also included additional markers for vowel characteristics: nasalization could be indicated by V̨ or Vⁿ. Vowel length was marked by V꞉ or Vꞏ for long vowels, and V‧ (raised dot) for half-long vowels. Positional variants such as fronted (V˂), backed (V˃), raised (V˄), and lowered (V˅) vowels were also specified.

Bloch & Trager Vowels (1942)

A Proposed Schema

Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager proposed a distinct vowel schema in their 1942 Outline of Linguistic Analysis. While this particular system did not gain widespread adoption, it represents an interesting contribution to the Americanist tradition's exploration of phonetic representation. Their approach utilized a single dot for central vowels and a diaeresis to reverse backness, aiming for a systematic way to denote vowel qualities. It's noteworthy that only central vowels with pre-existing dots (like ⟨ɨ⟩) or those that would lose distinctiveness with a dot (like ⟨ᵻ⟩) were exceptions to this rule.

Bloch & Trager (1942) Vowel Symbols

Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
High i ü ɨ u̇ ï u
Lower-high ɪ ᴜ̈ ᵻ ᴜ̇ ɪ̈ ᴜ
Higher-mid e ö ė ȯ ë o
Mean-mid ᴇ ꭥ̈ ᴇ̇ ꭥ̇ ᴇ̈ ꭥ
Lower-mid ɛ ɔ̈ ɛ̇ ɔ̇ ɛ̈ ɔ
Higher-low æ ω̈ æ̇ ω̇ æ̈ ω
Low a ɒ̈ ȧ ɒ̇ ä ɒ

Kurath Vowels (1939)

An IPA-Aligned System

Hans Kurath's 1939 vowel schema, presented in his Handbook of the Linguistic Geography of New England, is notable for its close alignment with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). This system, while part of the Americanist tradition, essentially adopted the IPA's structure for vowel classification. Rounded vowels are typically enclosed in parentheses. Apart from a few specific symbols like ⟨ʚ, ꭤ⟩ and minor differences in chart alignment, Kurath's approach largely mirrored the IPA's comprehensive and standardized representation of vowel sounds.

Kurath (1939) Vowel Symbols

Front Half-
front		 Central Half-
back		 Back
High i (y) ɨ (ʉ) ɯ (u)
Lower high ɪ (ʏ) ᵻ (ᵾ) ɤ (ᴜ)
Higher mid e (ø) ɘ (o)
Mid ə (ɵ)
Lower mid ɛ (ʚ) ɜ (ɞ) ʌ
Higher low æ ɐ (ɔ)
Low a ɑ ꭤ (ɒ)

Chomsky & Halle Vowels (1968)

A Theoretical Proposal

Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle, in their influential 1968 work, The Sound Pattern of English, proposed a vowel schema that, while theoretically significant, saw very limited practical application in phonetic transcription. This system was structured around distinctive features such as [−back]/[+back], [−round]/[+round], [−high]/[+high], [−low]/[+low], and [−tense]/[+tense]. In addition to the main table, it included ⟨ə⟩ to represent an unstressed reduced vowel. This schema reflected a more abstract, phonological approach to sound representation rather than a purely phonetic one, which may explain its infrequent use in direct transcription.

Chomsky & Halle (1968) Vowel Symbols

[−back] [+back]
[−round] [+round] [−round] [+round]
[+high −low] [+tense] i ü ᵻ̄ u
[−tense] ɪ ᴜ̈ ᵻ ᴜ
[−high −low] [+tense] e ȫ ʌ̄ ō
[−tense] ɛ ö ʌ o
[−high +low] [+tense] ǣ ꭢ̄ ā ɔ̄
[−tense] æ ꭢ a ɔ

Tone and Prosody (Pike 1947)

Marking Suprasegmentals

Kenneth L. Pike's 1947 work also provided conventions for transcribing suprasegmental features, specifically tone and prosody. These elements are crucial for capturing the melodic and rhythmic aspects of language, which can carry significant meaning. Pike's system offered a clear method for indicating these features, contributing to a more complete phonetic and phonemic representation.

Pike (1947) outlined the following tone marks:

  • High: ⟨V́⟩ or ⟨V¹⟩
  • Mid: ⟨V̍⟩ or ⟨V²⟩
  • Norm: ⟨V̄⟩ or ⟨V³⟩
  • Low: ⟨V̀⟩ or ⟨V⁴⟩

Stress was indicated by primary ˈCV or ⟨V́⟩ and secondary ˌCV or ⟨V̀⟩. Short or intermediate and long or final 'pauses' were represented by ⟨|⟩ and ⟨||⟩, respectively, mirroring IPA conventions. Syllable division was marked as CV.CV, and morpheme boundaries as CV-CV.

Historical Charts (1916)

AAA Committee Agreements

In 1916, a committee of the American Anthropological Association (AAA) formally agreed upon a set of phonetic charts for transcribing Indian languages. These charts, based on H. Sweet's classification for vowels, represent a significant historical moment in the standardization of Americanist notation. They illustrate the conventions adopted at the time, including specific differentiations for high central vowels and a comprehensive breakdown of consonants by articulation and manner.

1916 AAA Vowel Chart

narrow wide
back mixed front back mixed front
high ï ı᷸ (= ˙ı) i ɩ̈ ɩ᷸ (= ˙ɩ) ɩ
mid α [ʌ] e a ε
low ȧ ä
high round u u̇ ü υ υ̇ ϋ
mid round o ȯ ö ɔ ɔ̇ ɔ̈
low round ω ω̇ ω̈

1916 AAA Consonant Chart

  Stops Spirants Affricates Nasals Laterals Lateral Affricates Rolled Consonants
Surd Sonant Intermed. Aspirated Glot-
talized		 Surd Sonant Glot-
talized*		 Surd Sonant Glot-
talized*		 Surd Sonant Surd Sonant Glot-
talized*		 Surd Sonant Glot-
talized*		 Surd Sonant Glot-
talized*
Bilabial
(rounded)		 pw bw ʙw pwʽ p̓w , pwǃ ƕ w ƕǃ pƕ bw pƕǃ ᴍw mw                  
Bilabial
(unrounded)		 p b ʙ pʽ p̓ , pǃ φ β φǃ pφ bβ pφǃ ᴍ m                  
Dento-
labial		           f v fǃ pf bv pfǃ                      
Inter-
dental		           θ ϑ θǃ tθ dϑ tθǃ                      
Linguo-
dental		 t̯ d̯ ᴅ̯ t̯ʽ t̯̓ , t̯ǃ s̯ z̯ s̯ǃ t̯s; d̯z; t̯s;ǃ ɴ̯ n̯ ƚ̯ , ʟ̯ l̯ ƚ̯ǃ t̯ƚ d̯l; t̯ƚǃ ʀ̯ r̯ ʀ̯ǃ
Linguo-
alveolar		 t d ᴅ tʽ t̓ , tǃ s z sǃ ts dz tsǃ ɴ n ƚ , ʟ l ƚǃ tƚ dl tƚǃ ʀ r ʀǃ
Cerebral ṭ ḍ ᴅ̣ ṭʽ ṭ̓ , ṭǃ ṣ ẓ ṣǃ ṭs; ḍz; ṭs;ǃ ɴ̣ ṇ ƚ̣ , ʟ̣ ḷ ƚ̣ǃ ṭƚ ḍl; ṭƚǃ ʀ̣ ṛ ʀ̣ǃ
Dorso-
dental		 τ̯ δ̯ Δ̯ τ̯ʽ τ̯̓ , τ̯ǃ σ̯ ζ̯ σ̯ǃ τ̯σ δ̯ζ τ̯σǃ ν̯ ν̯ ᴧ̯ λ̯ ᴧ̯ǃ τ̯ᴧ δ̯λ τ̯ᴧǃ      
Dorsal τ δ Δ τʽ τ̓ , τǃ σ ζ σǃ τσ δζ τσǃ
ν
ν
 ᴧ λ ᴧǃ τᴧ δλ τᴧǃ      
Dorso-
palatal		 τ̣ δ̣ Δ̣ τ̣ʽ τ̣̓ , τ̣ǃ σ̣ ζ̣ σ̣ǃ τ̣σ δ̣ζ τ̣σǃ
ν̣
ν̣
 ᴧ̣ λ̣ ᴧ̣ǃ τ̣ᴧ δ̣λ τ̣ᴧǃ      
Anterior
c-sounds		 (τy) (δy) (Δy) (τyʽ) (τ̓ , τyǃ) cy jy cyǃ tcy djy tcyǃ (
ν
y)		 (
ν
y)		 (ᴧy) (λy) (ᴧyǃ) (τᴧy) (δλy) (τᴧyǃ)      
Mid
c-sounds		 (ty) (dy) (ᴅy) (tyʽ) (t̓ , tyǃ) c j cǃ tc dj tcǃ (ɴy) (ny) (ƚy , ʟy) (ly) (ƚyǃ) (tƚy) (dly) (tƚyǃ)      
Posterior
c-sounds		 (ṭy) (ḍy) (ᴅ̣y) (ṭyʽ) (ṭ̓ , ṭyǃ) c̣ j̣ c̣ǃ 𞛜 ḍj; 𞛜ǃ (ɴ̣y) (ṇy) (ƚ̣y , ʟ̣y) (ḷy) (ƚ̣yǃ) (ṭƚy) (ḍl;y) (ṭƚyǃ)      
Anterior
palatal		 k̯ g̯ ɢ̯ k̯ʽ k̯̓ , k̯ǃ x̯ γ̯ x̯ǃ k̯x; g̯γ k̯x;ǃ ᴎ̯ ŋ̯       k̯ƚ g̯l; k̯ƚǃ Ρ̯ ρ̯ ρ̯ǃ
Mid-
palatal		 k g ɢ kʽ k̓ , kǃ x γ xǃ kx gγ kxǃ ᴎ ŋ       kƚ gl kƚǃ Ρ ρ ρǃ
Back palatal,
velar		 ḳ (q) g̣ ɢ̣ ḳʽ ḳ̓ , ḳǃ x̣ γ̣ x̣ǃ ḳx g̣γ ḳxǃ ᴎ̣ ŋ̣       ḳƚ g̣l ḳƚǃ Ρ̣ ρ̣ ρ̣ǃ
Glottal ʼ     ʼʽ   ʽ , h a (any
vowel)		   ʼʽ                     (a̓)    
Laryngeal ʼ̣     ʼ̣ʽ   ḥ (any vowel with laryngeal resonance)   ʼ̣ḥ                          

Notes:

  • Surd refers to voiceless sounds; sonant to voiced sounds; and intermed. to partially voiced sounds (related to voice onset time).
  • In the glottalized stop column, the symbol on the left (consonant + overhead single quotation mark) denotes a weakly glottalized stop (e.g., weakly ejective). The symbol on the right indicates a strongly glottalized stop, articulated with greater force. For example, ⟨k̓⟩ represents weakly glottalized, while ⟨kǃ⟩ signifies strongly glottalized. This convention, though shown for stops, applies to any glottalized consonant.
  • "Laryngeal" encompasses both pharyngeal and epiglottal articulations.

Encoding NAPA

Digital Representation

For digital representation and standardization, the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) language tags register fonnapa as a subtag specifically for text encoded in Americanist phonetic notation. This ensures that linguistic data transcribed using NAPA can be properly identified and processed in digital environments, facilitating interoperability and archival efforts within the broader field of linguistics.

Variation Among Authors

A Comparative Overview

The Americanist tradition, while sharing core principles, has seen considerable variation in specific symbol usage among prominent authors and institutions over time. This section provides a comparative overview of how different phonetic symbols for plosives, affricates, fricatives, nasals, laterals, trills, and various diacritics have been represented by key figures such as Powell (1880), Boas (1911), the AAA (1916), Sapir (1934), Sturtevant (1978), and WIELD (2020), alongside their IPA equivalents. Understanding these historical and individual differences is crucial for accurate interpretation of older linguistic texts.

Consonant Variation Between Authors

Powel
1880		 Boas
1911		 AAA
1916		 Sapir
1934		 Sturtevant
1978		 WIELD
2020		 IPA
plosives
kꞏ ky kʸ kʸ k̯, kʸ c
gꞏ gy gʸ gʸ ɡ̯, ɡʸ ɟ
q q, ḳ q q q
g̣ g̣ ġ ɡ̇ ɢ
↋ ʼ ʔ ʔ ʔ ʔ
affricates
tθ θ̂ tθ t͜θ
dϑ ð̂ dð d͜ð
ts c c c t͜s;
dz ʒ ʒ dz d͜z;
tc tc č č č t͜ʃ
dj dj ǯ ǯ ǰ d͡ʒ
ʟ tł, tʟ ƛ ƛ ƛ t͡ɬ
ʟ̣ dl λ λ λ d͡ɮ
fricatives
ç ç θ θ θ θ
ȼ ȼ ϑ δ ð ð
c c c š š ʃ
j j j ž ž ʒ
q x̣ x x x x
x γ γ γ ɣ ɣ
x x̣ x̣ x̣ χ
γ̣ γ̣ γ̇ ɣ̇ ʁ
ḥ ħ ħ
nasals
ñ ñ ñ ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ
ṇ̃ ṇ̃ ŋ̇ ŋ̇ ɴ
m̥ ᴍ M m̥ m̥
n̥ ɴ N n̥ n̥
ñ̥ ɴ̃ Ṇ ŋ̊
laterals ł ł, ʟ ł ł ɬ
trills ɹ ṛ ʀ ʀ

Diacritic Variation Between Authors

Powel
1880		 Boas
1911		 AAA
1916		 Sapir
1934		 Sturtevant
1978		 WIELD
2020		 IPA
aspiration Cʽ Cʽ Cʽ, Cʰ Cʰ Cʰ Cʰ
glottalization Cʼ (bʼ) C! Cʼ Cʼ C̓ Cʼ Cʼ, Cˀ
palatalization Cꞏ Cy, Cy Cʸ Cʸ Cʸ Cʲ
labialization Cᵘ Cw, Cw Cʷ Cʷ Cʷ Cʷ
length V̄? V̄ Vꞏ (V:) Vꞏ (V:) V꞉ (a꞉ a꞉꞉ or aꞏ a꞉) Vː (Vːː)
nasalization Vⁿ Vⁿ V̨ Ṽ V̨ Ṽ

Vowel Variation Between Authors

Powel
1880		 Boas
1911		 AAA
1916		 Sapir
1934		 Sturtevant
1978		 WIELD
2020		 IPA
vowels
ǐ i i, ī i i i
i ɩ, i ɪ ɪ ɪ
ě e e, ē e e e
e ɛ, e ɛ ɛ ɛ
ä ä, ă æ æ æ
u u u, ū u u u
ǔ υ, u ᴜ ʊ ʊ
o o o, ō o o o
ǒ ɔ, o ŏ ɔ ɔ
ɔ â ω ɔ ɒ ɒ
ï ɨ ɨ, ï ɨ, ɯ
û ᴇ ə ə ə ə
ɑ, ȧ ʌ ʌ? ɐ

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References

References

  1.  WIELD's Recommended Americanist Transcription System
  2.  Not supported by Unicode. It can be kept distinct in a database as Greek รŽย, but that is not visually distinct in print.
A full list of references for this article are available at the Americanist phonetic notation Wikipedia page

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Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional linguistic or phonetic advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for consulting original scholarly works, official linguistic documentation, or seeking advice from qualified phoneticians or linguists for specific research or transcription needs. Always refer to authoritative sources and consult with experts for precise applications of phonetic notation.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.