The Great Grain Divide
An in-depth examination of the pivotal 19th-century legislation that reshaped British society, economy, and political landscape.
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Introduction to the Corn Laws
Defining the Legislation
The Corn Laws were a series of tariffs and trade restrictions enacted in the United Kingdom between 1815 and 1846. The term "corn" in British English refers broadly to all cereal grains, including wheat, oats, and barley. These laws were a cornerstone of British mercantilism, designed primarily to maintain high domestic grain prices, thereby benefiting local farmers and landowners.
Economic Intent and Impact
The core mechanism of the Corn Laws was to prohibit or heavily tax the importation of cheap foreign corn. Initially, this meant outright prohibition below a certain price threshold, later evolving into steep import duties. This policy effectively insulated British agriculture from international competition, even during periods of domestic food scarcity. While it bolstered the profits and political influence of landowning elites, it simultaneously inflated food prices and the cost of living for the general populace. This had a detrimental effect on other economic sectors, particularly manufacturing, by diminishing the disposable income of the British public.
A Political Battleground
The Corn Laws became a focal point of intense political and social contention. Urban populations, who bore the brunt of high food prices and possessed less political representation than rural areas, vehemently opposed them. The eventual repeal in 1846, largely driven by the exigencies of the Great Famine in Ireland and spearheaded by Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel, marked a significant ideological shift towards free trade in Britain. Economic analyses suggest this repeal economically benefited the lower 90% of income earners while causing losses for the top 10%.
Historical Roots and Early Regulations
Tudor to Stuart Interventions
The regulation of corn, a vital staple and trade commodity, has a long history in Britain. Early interventions date back to the Tudor period, which saw legislation against grain speculation. The Stuart era introduced more formal import and export controls. By 1670, import regulations were firmly in place, and by 1689, bounties were offered for exporting rye, malt, and wheat, while these same commodities faced taxation upon import.
The Corn Act of 1772
A significant precursor to the 19th-century Corn Laws was the Corn Act of 1772. This act repealed Elizabethan controls on grain speculation but also introduced a system where exports were halted, and imports were permitted only when the domestic price exceeded 48 shillings per quarter. This represented an early attempt to balance the interests of both agricultural producers and consumers, though the debate over corn regulation persisted.
Post-Napoleonic Era and the 1815 Act
Following the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, corn prices experienced a sharp decline. In response, the Tory government under Lord Liverpool enacted the Importation Act of 1815. This legislation was designed to artificially sustain high bread prices, leading to widespread public unrest and serious rioting in London. The economist Thomas Malthus, a proponent of this protectionist stance, argued that relying on imported corn would depress laborers' wages and harm manufacturers by reducing the purchasing power of landlords and farmers.
The Rise of Opposition
Early Calls for Free Trade
The restrictive nature of the Corn Laws quickly generated significant opposition. In 1820, the Merchants' Petition, drafted by Thomas Tooke, was presented to the House of Commons, advocating for free trade and the abolition of protective tariffs. Despite Prime Minister Lord Liverpool's professed support for free trade, he dismissed the petition, citing the complexity of existing restrictions. However, he acknowledged that Britain's economic strength persisted despite, rather than because of, its protectionist policies. By 1821, William Huskisson, President of the Board of Trade, recommended a return to the "practically free" trade conditions that existed before 1815.
Legislative Adjustments and Continued Discontent
Subsequent acts attempted to modify the Corn Laws, but largely failed to alleviate public discontent. The Importation Act of 1822 permitted corn imports only when domestic prices reached 80 shillings per quarter, a threshold rarely met. In 1828, a new "sliding scale" was introduced by Huskisson and Prime Minister Duke of Wellington. This system imposed a high duty (34 shillings 8 pence) when domestic corn was 52 shillings or less per quarter, gradually decreasing to one shilling when the price rose to 73 shillings. Despite these adjustments, the fundamental issue of high food prices persisted.
The Anti-Corn Law League
The most influential force against the Corn Laws was the Anti-Corn Law League, founded in 1838. This nationwide, middle-class movement, led by figures like Richard Cobden and John Bright, campaigned vigorously for repeal. Charles Pelham Villiers, a Liberal Whig MP, consistently proposed repeal motions in Parliament from 1837 to 1845, steadily gaining support. The League published extensive propaganda, including a "blue book" in 1840 detailing the laws' negative effects, which was widely disseminated and quoted in major newspapers. They argued that cheap food would lead to higher real wages for workers and stimulate manufacturing, fostering international trade and peace.
Diverse Perspectives on Repeal
While the League championed free trade, other voices offered different interpretations. Landowners contended that manufacturers sought cheap food primarily to reduce wages and maximize profits, a view echoed by some socialist Chartists. Karl Marx observed that the campaign for repeal promised both "a Big Loaf" and reduced working hours to secure workers' support. Thomas Carlyle, a critic of the League, famously quipped that "Cheap and Nasty" was their watchword, suggesting that good things could not be had cheaply and that the nation had been misled.
The Path to Repeal
The Anti-League's Counter-Campaign
In response to the growing momentum for repeal, the Central Agricultural Protection Society (CAPS), also known as the "Anti-League," was formed in February 1844 by the Duke of Richmond. This organization actively campaigned in favor of the Corn Laws, particularly in rural counties, where independent freehold farmers often showed the fiercest resistance to repeal.
The Irish Famine's Catalyst
The political landscape dramatically shifted in late 1845 due to severe crop failures and the onset of the Great Famine in Ireland. While Britain faced scarcity, Ireland endured widespread starvation. Crucially, Ireland continued to export substantial quantities of food to Great Britain, not due to a lack of food in Ireland, but because its price was beyond the reach of the impoverished population. This humanitarian crisis underscored the urgent need for new food supplies and intensified pressure for repeal.
Peel's Political Gambit
Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel, a Conservative, recognized the gravity of the situation. He advocated for the immediate suspension of grain tariffs via Order in Council, followed by a full repeal of the Corn Laws. Facing strong opposition from protectionist members within his own Cabinet, Peel initially resigned in frustration on December 11, 1845. However, after Whig leader Lord John Russell failed to form a government, Peel agreed to return as Prime Minister, now relying on Whig support to push through the repeal. This decision fractured the Conservative Party, demonstrating Peel's commitment to what he saw as a national imperative over party unity.
The Repeal of the Corn Laws
The 1846 Importation Act
On January 27, 1846, Prime Minister Peel unveiled his government's plan: the Corn Laws would be abolished on February 1, 1849, following a three-year period of gradual tariff reductions, leaving only a nominal 1 shilling duty per quarter. This phased approach aimed to ease the transition for domestic agriculture. The Anti-Corn Law League, while having laid the groundwork through its agitation, played a secondary role in the final legislative process.
Parliamentary Debates and Opposition
The repeal bill faced fierce opposition in Parliament, notably from Benjamin Disraeli and Lord George Bentinck. They argued that repeal would undermine the social and political standing of landowners, thereby dismantling Britain's "territorial constitution" and empowering commercial interests. Despite these arguments, on May 15, 1846, the House of Commons voted 327 to 229 in favor of repeal. The Duke of Wellington then successfully persuaded the House of Lords to pass the bill on June 25, making it the Importation Act 1846.
Peel's Resignation and Legacy
On the same night the Corn Laws were repealed, Peel's Irish Coercion Bill was defeated in the Commons by a coalition of Whigs, Radicals, and Tory protectionists. This defeat led to Peel's immediate resignation as Prime Minister. In his resignation speech, Peel famously credited Richard Cobden as the true architect of the repeal, acknowledging Cobden's "untiring energy" and "unaffected and unadorned eloquence." The repeal caused a lasting schism within the Conservative Party, with Peel's loyalists, known as Peelites (including future Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone), eventually merging with the Whigs and Radicals to form the Liberal Party in 1859.
Motivations Behind Repeal
Preserving Aristocratic Governance
Scholars have explored various reasons for Sir Robert Peel's seemingly counter-intuitive decision to sacrifice his government for the repeal of a policy he had long supported. One prominent argument suggests that Peel's primary motivation was to safeguard aristocratic government and a limited franchise against the backdrop of popular unrest. He viewed reform as a necessary evil to prevent more radical or tumultuous societal changes, believing that ameliorating conditions that could provoke democratic agitation was crucial for preserving governmental institutions.
Influence of Economic Thought
Another significant factor in Peel's conversion to free trade was the influence of economic ideas. Economic historians, such as Douglas Irwin, contend that economic principles, rather than solely the pressure from vested interests, were central to Peel's shift. He had extensively studied the works of classical economists like Adam Smith, David Hume, and David Ricardo, whose theories advocated for free trade and comparative advantage. This intellectual engagement likely convinced Peel of the long-term economic benefits of repealing the protectionist Corn Laws for Britain as a whole.
Long-Term Effects of Repeal
Agricultural Decline and Transformation
The immediate impact on wheat prices after 1850 was moderate, averaging around 52 shillings per quarter for two decades. However, the true challenge to British agriculture emerged about 25 years after repeal. Advancements in shipping (both sail and steam), faster rail transport, and modernized agricultural machinery enabled North American prairie farms and Russian peasant farms to export vast quantities of cheap grain. This "sudden and overwhelming invasion" of foreign wheat, particularly in the late 1870s, led to a significant decline in British wheat-growing land and a general "ruin" of British agriculture, which had previously been a world leader.
Urbanization and Social Shifts
The decline in agricultural prosperity forced many farmers and rural laborers to migrate to cities in search of employment. This contributed to rapid urbanization and a significant demographic shift. While agricultural wages in Britain were initially higher than in many European countries, they declined after 1877, pushing more people out of the countryside. Landowners, once the wealthiest class, saw their economic and political leadership diminish as agriculture's contribution to the national income plummeted.
National Security Implications
Britain's increasing reliance on imported food, a direct consequence of free trade policies, introduced a new vulnerability: the danger of being starved into submission during wartime. This became a critical concern during both the First and Second World Wars. German U-boat campaigns in both conflicts explicitly targeted ships importing food into Britain, attempting to exploit this dependence. However, these efforts were ultimately unsuccessful, demonstrating Britain's ability to adapt and protect its supply lines.
A Paradigm Shift to Free Trade
The repeal of the Corn Laws is widely regarded by economic historians as a decisive moment, marking Britain's firm commitment to free trade. Unlike most other European nations, which responded to the influx of cheap foreign grain by increasing tariffs to protect their domestic farms, Britain maintained its open market policy. Even Benjamin Disraeli, a staunch opponent of repeal, did not attempt to reintroduce protectionism when he became Prime Minister, recognizing that the issue was settled and that antagonizing the newly enfranchised urban working class, who benefited from cheap food, was politically untenable. Britain's future was staked on its role as "the workshop of the world," a leading manufacturing nation.
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References
References
- or รยฃ4, about รยฃ330 today, Inflation between 1775 and 1815 was substantial, so 80s in 1813 was actually worth less than 44s in 1773.
- Asa Briggs (1959), The Making of Modern England 1783รขยย1867: The Age of Improvement, p. 314
- Mary Lawson-Tancred, "The Anti-League and the Corn Law Crisis of 1846." Historical Journal (1960) 3#2 pp: 162รขยย183. in JSTOR
- E. J. Feuchtwanger, Democracy and Empire: Britain 1865รขยย1914 (London: Edward Arnold, 1985), p. 116.
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