What was the Croat–Bosniak War, and what larger conflict was it a part of?

The Croat–Bosniak War, also known as the Croat–Muslim War, was an armed conflict that took place from October 18, 1992, to March 18, 1994. It involved the Bosniak-dominated Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, which was supported by Croatia. This conflict is often described as a 'war within a war' because it occurred as part of the broader Bosnian War.

What was the initial military alliance between the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) and the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) at the beginning of the Bosnian War?

At the outset of the Bosnian War, the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH), which was predominantly Bosniak, and the Croatian Defence Council (HVO), representing Bosnian Croats, formed an alliance. They initially fought together against the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS).

When and where did the first armed incidents between the ARBiH and HVO occur, leading to the breakdown of their alliance?

Tensions between the ARBiH and the HVO began to rise by the end of 1992, leading to the first armed incidents in October 1992 in central Bosnia. The military alliance largely dissolved in early 1993, at which point the two former allies engaged in open conflict.

In which regions did most of the fighting during the Croat–Bosniak War take place?

Most of the fighting during the Croat–Bosniak War escalated and primarily took place in central Bosnia and Herzegovina. Despite the widespread conflict, it was characterized by sporadic clashes and numerous short ceasefires rather than an all-out war across all regions.

In which regions did the Croat–Bosniak alliance continue to hold despite the wider conflict?

Even during the Croat–Bosniak War, the alliance between Croats and Bosniaks persisted in certain regions, primarily Bihać, Sarajevo, and Tešanj. In these areas, both sides remained allied, often due to being heavily outmatched by Serb forces.

What was the outcome of the Croat–Bosniak War, and what agreement formally ended the hostilities?

The Croat–Bosniak War ended with a lasting ceasefire agreed upon on February 23, 1994. A formal agreement, known as the Washington Agreement, was signed in Washington D.C. on March 18, 1994. This agreement led to the establishment of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the resumption of joint operations against Serb forces, which ultimately contributed to the end of the Bosnian War.

What territorial changes resulted from the Washington Agreement?

The Washington Agreement led to the creation of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. At the time of the agreement, the HVO-held territory constituted 13% of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the ARBiH controlled 21%. In August 1995, Herzeg-Bosnia was formally abolished, and Croatian-held territory was federalized into cantons.

What were the findings of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) regarding Croatia's role in the conflict and the actions of Bosnian Croat officials?

The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) convicted 17 Bosnian Croat officials, with six of them found guilty of participating in a joint criminal enterprise with Croatian president Franjo Tuđman and other top Croatian officials. This enterprise aimed to annex or control Croat-majority parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina and ethnically cleanse Bosniaks. The ICTY also ruled that Croatia had overall control over the Croatian Defence Council and that the Croatian Army had entered Bosnia, thereby internationalizing the conflict.

Were any Bosniak officials convicted of war crimes during the Croat–Bosniak War?

Yes, two Bosniak officials were also convicted by the ICTY for war crimes committed during the Croat–Bosniak War.

How did Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina prepare for potential conflict in 1990-1991?

In 1990 and 1991, Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared several 'Serbian Autonomous Regions' with the intention of unifying them to create a Greater Serbia. They utilized the well-equipped Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) to defend these territories. As early as September or October 1990, the JNA began arming Bosnian Serbs and organizing them into militias, distributing an estimated 51,900 firearms to Serb paramilitaries and 23,298 firearms to the SDS by March 1991.

What was Franjo Tuđman's ultimate goal in Bosnia, according to the ICTY?

According to the ICTY, Franjo Tuđman's ultimate goal in Bosnia was to create a 'Greater Croatia,' based on the borders of the Croatian Banovina of 1939. This envisioned entity would include western Herzegovina, Posavina, and other parts of Bosnia with majority Croat populations. Tuđman pursued a dual policy, publicly supporting Bosnia's unity while privately seeking its division between Croats and Serbs, as the international community opposed outright partition.

What significant meeting took place between Croatian and Serbian presidents in March 1991?

On March 25, 1991, Croatian president Franjo Tuđman met with Serbian president Slobodan Milošević in Karađorđevo. This meeting was reportedly held to discuss the partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

What proposal did Alija Izetbegović and Kiro Gligorov make in June 1991 to resolve the Yugoslav crisis?

On June 6, 1991, Alija Izetbegović, the Bosnian president, and Kiro Gligorov, the Macedonian president, proposed a weak confederation. This confederation would involve loose ties between Croatia and Slovenia, and a federation of the other four republics. However, this proposal was rejected by Slobodan Milošević, the Serbian president.

What agreement was drafted in July 1991 between Serbs and Muslims in Bosnia, and how was it received?

In July 1991, Radovan Karadžić, president of the SDS, and Muhamed Filipović, vice president of the Muslim Bosniak Organisation (MBO), drafted an agreement that would keep Bosnia in a state union with SR Serbia and SR Montenegro. This agreement was denounced by the HDZ BiH and the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina (SDP BiH) as an anti-Croat pact and a betrayal. Although initially welcoming it, Izetbegović also dismissed the agreement.

How did the Croatian government respond to the potential spread of war into Bosnia and Herzegovina in late 1991?

The Croatian government began arming Croats in the Herzegovina region as early as October or November 1991, anticipating that the Serbs would extend the war into Bosnia and Herzegovina. They also provided arms to the Muslim community. By late 1991, approximately 20,000 Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina, primarily from Herzegovina, had enlisted in the Croatian National Guard.

What was Alija Izetbegović's initial stance on the Croatian War of Independence, and how did it affect Bosnia's defense preparations?

During the Croatian War of Independence, Alija Izetbegović publicly declared Bosnia and Herzegovina's neutrality, stating 'this is not our war.' Consequently, the Sarajevo government did not implement defensive measures against a probable attack by Bosnian Serbs and the JNA. Izetbegović even agreed to disarm the existing Territorial Defense (TO) forces at the JNA's request, a decision defied by Bosnian Croat and Muslim organizations that subsequently gained control of many TO facilities and weapons.

When was the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia established, and what were its stated goals and initial actions?

The autonomous Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia (HZ-HB) was established on November 18, 1991. It claimed to have no secessionist goals, stating it would serve as a 'legal basis for local self-administration' and vowed to respect the Bosnian government if Bosnia and Herzegovina remained independent of Yugoslavia. Mate Boban was appointed its president. However, the Bosnian government declared Herzeg-Bosnia unlawful on November 23, 1991.

How did the leadership of the HDZ BiH react to the establishment of Croatian communities within Bosnia and Herzegovina?

The leadership of the HDZ BiH was divided on the establishment of the Croatian communities. The party president, Stjepan Kljuić, opposed the move, while party representatives from Herzegovina, Central Bosnia, and Bosnian Posavina supported it. This division reflected differing views on Bosnia and Herzegovina's future, with Kljuić favoring a unified Bosnia and Herzegovina and others seeking closer ties or eventual unification with Croatia.

What was Franjo Tuđman's perspective on Bosnia and Herzegovina's sovereignty and Croatian national interests in December 1991?

At a meeting on December 27, 1991, Franjo Tuđman stated that 'from the perspective of sovereignty, Bosnia-Herzegovina has no prospects' and recommended that Croatian policy should support Bosnia's sovereignty only 'until such time as it no longer suits Croatia.' He believed that Serbs and some Bosnians did not accept Bosnia's independence and aimed to 'gather the Croatian people inside the widest possible borders,' suggesting a partition where Croatia would gain areas like Herzeg-Bosnia and Croatian Posavina for optimal Croatian national interests.

How did the Bosnian independence referendum in February-March 1992 reflect ethnic divisions?

An independence referendum was held in Bosnia and Herzegovina on February 29 and March 1, 1992, asking voters if they favored a sovereign and independent Bosnia-Herzegovina as a state of equal citizens and nations. While Muslims and Bosnian Croats strongly favored independence, Bosnian Serbs largely boycotted the referendum. Despite the boycott, the majority of voters supported independence, which Alija Izetbegović declared on March 3, 1992, and Croatia immediately recognized.

When was the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) formed, and what was its initial ethnic composition?

The Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) was formed on April 15, 1992. Initially, slightly over two-thirds of its troops were Muslims, with almost one-third consisting of Croats and Serbs.

Why did Mate Boban state the HVO was formed?

Mate Boban stated that the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) was formed because the Bosnian government took no action after Croat villages, including Ravno, were destroyed by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA).

What was the stance of the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS) regarding Bosnia's territorial integrity, and how did it differ from the HVO?

The Croatian Defence Forces (HOS), a paramilitary wing of the far-right Croatian Party of Rights (HSP), supported Bosnia's territorial integrity 'much more consistently and sincerely than the HVO.' Unlike the HVO, which favored the partition of Bosnia along ethnic lines, the HOS was a Croatian-Muslim militia that fought for a unified Bosnia. The HOS included both Croats and Muslims in its ranks and initially cooperated with both the ARBiH and the HVO, despite using problematic fascist insignia.

What was the Graz agreement, and what was its outcome?

The Graz agreement was formed on May 6, 1992, when Croatian Bosnian leader Mate Boban and Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić met in Graz, Austria. They agreed to a ceasefire and discussed the territorial division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Croatia and Serbia. However, the parties ultimately diverged, and the following day, the JNA and Bosnian Serb forces attacked Croat-held positions in Mostar.

What was the significance of UN Resolution 752 in May 1992?

On May 15, 1992, the United Nations (UN) issued Resolution 752, which acknowledged the presence of JNA (Yugoslav People's Army) and HV (Croatian Army) soldiers in Bosnia and Herzegovina and demanded their withdrawal. This resolution highlighted international recognition of external military involvement in the conflict.

How did the Croatian and Herzeg-Bosnia leadership attempt to influence Alija Izetbegović regarding Bosnia's future?

The Croatian and Herzeg-Bosnia leadership offered Alija Izetbegović a confederation between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Izetbegović rejected this proposal, possibly to prevent Bosnia from falling under Croatian influence or to avoid justifying Serbian claims and hindering reconciliation between Muslims and Serbs. Mate Boban even issued an ultimatum, threatening to withhold Croatian military aid for Sarajevo's defense if Izetbegović did not agree to a confederation with Franjo Tuđman.

What was the Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, signed in July 1992?

On July 21, 1992, Alija Izetbegović and Franjo Tuđman signed the Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia in Zagreb. This agreement aimed to facilitate cooperation against Serb aggression and coordinate military efforts, including placing the HVO under ARBiH command. It also allowed for the transportation of weapons to the ARBiH through Croatia despite the UN arms embargo and stipulated dual citizenship for Bosnian Croats. However, cooperation remained inharmonious.

What were the initial disagreements between Croats and Muslims that led to armed incidents in late 1992?

Disagreements between Croats and Muslims first emerged over the distribution of arms and ammunition from captured JNA barracks. These disputes occurred in May in Busovača over the Kaonik Barracks and in Novi Travnik over an arms factory. In July, similar disputes arose in Vareš and Vitez, where an explosives factory was located, and the HVO secured JNA barracks in Kiseljak. Both sides also sought greater political power in central Bosnian municipalities.

What happened in Busovača on May 10, 1992, following an incident involving the HVO?

On May 10, 1992, the HVO took full control of Busovača and blockaded the town after an HVO member was injured. The HVO issued an ultimatum to the Territorial Defense (TO) to surrender its weapons and place itself under HVO command, also issuing arrest warrants for three Muslim leaders, one of whom was arrested and beaten.

What was the fate of HOS Commander Blaž Kraljević in August 1992?

On August 9, 1992, HOS Commander Blaž Kraljević was killed in unclear circumstances at a police checkpoint in the village of Kruševo. He and eight of his staff were killed by HVO soldiers under the command of Mladen Naletilić, who supported a split between Croats and Muslims. Some sources suggest that Zagreb, through the HVO, arranged the ambush and killings of Kraljević and his staff because he advocated for Bosnian territorial integrity and had allegedly captured Serb-held Trebinje.

What was the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina's ruling on the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia in September 1992?

On September 14, 1992, the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared the proclamation of Herzeg-Bosnia unconstitutional.

What was the military situation in Bosnian Posavina in late 1992, and how did it affect Croat-Muslim relations?

In June 1992, the VRS launched Operation Corridor against HV-HVO forces in Bosnian Posavina to secure a road connecting Belgrade, Banja Luka, and Knin. The VRS captured several towns, reducing Croat forces to isolated positions. By early October 1992, the VRS broke through Croat lines and captured Bosanski Brod, forcing HV/HVO troops to withdraw. This led to mutual blame between Croats and Muslims for the defeats, with the Bosnian government suspecting a Croat-Serb ceasefire and Croats complaining about a lack of ARBiH assistance.

What was the impact of VRS successes in northern Bosnia on the demographics of central Bosnia in late 1992?

The successes of the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) in northern Bosnia resulted in a significant influx of Muslim refugees fleeing south towards the HVO-held regions of central Bosnia. This dramatically altered the demographics in towns like Bugojno and Travnik, where Croats found themselves reduced from roughly half the local population to a small minority practically overnight.

Who were the foreign Mujahideen, and what role did they play in the conflict?

Foreign Mujahideen were Muslim volunteers, mainly from North Africa and the Middle East, who began arriving in central Bosnia in the second half of 1992. They established combat training camps with the aim of assisting their 'Muslim brothers' against the Serbs. Initially providing humanitarian aid, they later joined the ARBiH in battles against the HVO, particularly after the Croat–Muslim conflict began. These fighters, organized into the El Mudžahid detachment of the 7th Muslim Brigade, were estimated to number up to 4,000 and became known for atrocities against the Croat population.

How was the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) structured and equipped?

The ARBiH was formed in April 1992, based on the Yugoslav Territorial Defense (TO) organization. It comprised 13 infantry brigades, 12 separate platoons, a military police battalion, an engineer battalion, and a presidential escort company. By August 1992, five corps were established, with two more added in the second half of 1993. Brigades, the main tactical units, varied in size from a few hundred to 4-5,000 men. By 1993, the ARBiH had around 20 main battle tanks (including T-55s), 30 APCs, some heavy artillery, and 100,000-120,000 men, though they faced shortages of ammunition, rifles, and medical supplies.

How were the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) forces organized and supported?

The HVO, formed on April 8, 1992, was the official military of Herzeg-Bosnia, with its organization beginning in late 1991. Each district was responsible for its defense, leading to the formation of four Operative Zones. HVO brigades, formed in late 1992 and early 1993, typically had 2,000-3,000 men with light artillery, mortars, and antitank platoons. The HVO Home Guard was established in early 1993 for support. The ICTY found that Croatia exercised overall control over the HVO, providing leadership, planning, coordination, and organization. The HVO also received significant financial and logistical support from Croatia, including equipment and HV officers, and HV units were deployed to assist them.

What was the estimated strength of the Bosniak and Croat forces in 1993?

According to a July 1993 estimate by the CIA, the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) had between 100,000 and 120,000 men. The Croatian Defence Council (HVO) forces were estimated at 40,000 to 50,000 men by the CIA in the same period, while the European Community Monitoring Mission (ECMM) estimated the HVO's strength at 45,000–55,000 in early 1993.

What types of foreign fighters supported the Croat forces?

Foreign fighters supporting the Croat forces included British volunteers and numerous individuals from Western Christian cultural areas, encompassing both Catholics and Protestants. Volunteers from Albania, the Netherlands, the United States, Ireland, Poland, Australia, New Zealand, France, Sweden, Germany, Hungary, Norway, Canada, and Finland were organized into the Croatian 103rd (International) Infantry Brigade. There was also a special Italian unit, the Garibaldi battalion, and a French unit, the Groupe Jacques Doriot. Volunteers from Germany and Austria also fought for the HOS paramilitary group.

What was the significance of the armed clash in Novi Travnik on October 18, 1992?

The armed clash in Novi Travnik on October 18, 1992, marked the first of several local confrontations between Croat and Muslim forces. It began as a dispute over a shared gas station, escalating into armed conflict that resulted in the death of an ARBiH soldier. Fighting quickly spread throughout the town, leading both the ARBiH and HVO to mobilize units and erect roadblocks, signifying a worsening of relations.

What events led to the escalation of conflict in Busovača in January 1993?

Conflict escalated in Busovača, the HVO's military headquarters in central Bosnia, in January 1993. On January 24, the ARBiH ambushed and killed two HVO soldiers outside the town. The following day, six Croats and a Serb civilian were executed by the ARBiH in the nearby village of Dusina. In response, HVO forces blocked all roads in central Bosnia, halting arms transports to the ARBiH, and launched attacks on the Kadića Strana part of Busovača, leading to expulsions and killings of Muslim civilians.

How did the Vance–Owen Peace Plan (VOPP) propose to divide Bosnia and Herzegovina?

The Vance–Owen Peace Plan (VOPP) proposed to divide Bosnia and Herzegovina into ten ethnically based autonomous provinces or cantons. Under this plan, three provinces would be designated for Serbs, three for Muslims, and three for Croats, with Sarajevo designated as a separate province.

What was the impact of the Vance–Owen Peace Plan on the Croat-Bosniak War?

Many believed that the Vance–Owen Peace Plan contributed to the escalation of the Croat-Bosniak War by encouraging a struggle for territory between Croat and Muslim forces in ethnically mixed areas of central Bosnia. The UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights even stated in May 1993 that the plan was encouraging ethnic cleansing. However, Lord Owen, one of the plan's drafters, defended it, arguing that the alliance between Croats and Muslims was already deteriorating throughout 1992.

What significant event occurred in Ahmići on April 16, 1993, during the HVO's offensive in the Lašva Valley?

On April 16, 1993, the village of Ahmići was attacked by surprise in the morning with mortar rounds and sniper fire, culminating in the massacre of at least 103 Muslim civilians, including 32 women and 11 children. The main mosque was burned and its minaret demolished. The ICTY determined that this attack was preplanned and constituted a 'deliberate massacre of unarmed, unwarned civilians,' followed by a cleanup operation to conceal the events.

What was the 'pure terrorism' act that occurred in Stari Vitez on April 18, 1993?

On April 18, 1993, a truck bomb was detonated near the mosque in Stari Vitez, destroying the War Presidency office and killing at least six people while injuring 50. The ICTY characterized this as an act of 'pure terrorism' carried out by elements within the HVO, though it did not link the attack directly to the HVO leadership.

How did the conflict spread to northern Herzegovina in April 1993?

By the end of April 1993, the war had spread to northern Herzegovina, specifically to the Konjic and Jablanica municipalities. The conflict began on April 14 with an ARBiH attack on an HVO-held village outside Konjic, to which the HVO responded by capturing three villages northeast of Jablanica. This marked the full outbreak of the Croat-Bosniak War in the region.

What atrocities were committed in Trusina and Uzdol during the conflict in northern Herzegovina?

In the village of Trusina, north of Jablanica, 18 Croat civilians (including two children) and four POWs were killed by an ARBiH unit called the *Zulfikar* on April 16, 1993. A few days later, during an ARBiH offensive east of Prozor, the Uzdol massacre occurred on September 14, 1993, where 29 Croat civilians, including three children, were killed by the Prozor Independent Battalion and local police after infiltrating HVO defense lines.

What was the status of Mostar during the Croat-Bosniak War, particularly by mid-April 1993?

By mid-April 1993, Mostar had become a divided city. The western part was primarily controlled by HVO forces, while the eastern part was largely concentrated with the ARBiH. Although the ARBiH had a numerical advantage in central Bosnia, the HVO held a clear military advantage in Herzegovina, with its headquarters located in western Mostar.

What significant military actions occurred in Mostar starting May 9, 1993?

The conflict in Mostar began on May 9, 1993, with artillery fire on both the east and west sides of the city. Combat focused on the ARBiH headquarters in the Vranica building in western Mostar and the HVO-held Tihomir Mišić barracks in eastern Mostar. After the HVO successfully attacked Vranica, 10 Muslim POWs from the building were killed. On June 30, the ARBiH captured the Tihomir Mišić barracks and other strategic locations, securing the entire eastern part of the city. The HVO launched a counterattack, recapturing Buna, and both sides resorted to shelling and sniping, causing severe damage to eastern Mostar.

What was the demographic impact of the conflict on Mostar?

Before the war, Mostar municipality had a mixed population of 43,037 Croats, 43,856 Muslims, 23,846 Serbs, and 12,768 Yugoslavs. By 1997, municipalities that had a Croat relative majority became exclusively Croat, and those with a Muslim majority became exclusively Muslim. Approximately 60% to 75% of buildings in eastern Mostar were destroyed or severely damaged, while about 20% in the western part suffered similar fates.

What was the 'Convoy of Joy' incident in June 1993?

In early June 1993, a humanitarian aid convoy known as the 'Convoy of Joy,' destined for Tuzla, was stopped on June 10 by Croat refugees from Travnik who blocked the road north of Novi Travnik. The convoy was subsequently looted, and eight drivers were killed. The following morning, incidents continued, and a UNPROFOR escort returned fire, killing two HVO soldiers. This incident received extensive negative media coverage in the West for the HVO.

Croat U2013bosniak War Wiki: A War Within a War: An Academic Analysis of the Croat-Bosniak Conflict

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Political Background & Rising Tensions

The Rise of Nationalist Parties

The first free elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina in November 1990 marked a seismic shift in the political landscape, bringing three nationalist parties to power. These were the Bosniak-led Party of Democratic Action (SDA) under Alija Izetbegović, the Serbian Democratic Party (SDS) led by Radovan Karadžić, and the Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina (HDZ BiH) under Stjepan Kljuić. This power-sharing arrangement, while initially functional, laid the groundwork for future divisions along ethnic lines as the crisis in Yugoslavia deepened.

Serbian Ambitions & JNA Armament

Throughout 1990 and 1991, Serbs in both Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina proclaimed several "Serbian Autonomous Regions." Their explicit goal was to unify these territories into a "Greater Serbia." This movement was heavily supported by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), which began arming Bosnian Serbs and organizing them into militias as early as September 1990. By March 1991, the JNA had distributed tens of thousands of firearms to Serb paramilitaries and the SDS, creating a formidable military force loyal to Serbian nationalist goals.

Croatian Aspirations & Herzeg-Bosnia

Parallel to Serbian ambitions, Croatian leadership under President Franjo Tuđman harbored its own territorial goals, envisioning a "Greater Croatia" based on the 1939 Banovina of Croatia borders. This led to a dual policy: publicly supporting Bosnian unity while privately pursuing partition. A pivotal moment was the meeting between Tuđman and Serbian President Slobodan Milošević in Karađorđevo in March 1991, where the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina was reportedly discussed. This strategy culminated in the establishment of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia in November 1991, an autonomous entity that, while not officially secessionist, operated with its own police, army, and currency, and was closely aligned with Zagreb.

The Unraveling Alliance

A Fragile United Front

Following Bosnia and Herzegovina's independence referendum in early 1992, the Bosnian War began. The Bosnian Serb Army (VRS), backed by the JNA, quickly seized control of 70% of the country. In response, Bosnian Croats formed the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) and the Bosniak-led government formed the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH). Initially, these two forces formed a crucial alliance, fighting together against the VRS. Their combined efforts, particularly in mid-1992, were instrumental in breaking the siege of Mostar and preventing a total Serb victory.

Secret Deals and Growing Mistrust

Despite the military alliance, mutual trust was scarce. Both sides held separate discussions with the Serbs, fueling suspicion. In May 1992, HVO leader Mate Boban and SDS leader Radovan Karadžić met in Graz, Austria, and reached an agreement on a ceasefire and the territorial division of Bosnia. Although the agreement quickly fell apart, it severely damaged Croat-Bosniak relations. The Sarajevo government, struggling to organize its forces, had to rely on the better-equipped HVO, yet the HVO refused to be integrated into the ARBiH command structure, deepening the rift.

The Fall of HOS

A significant factor in the deteriorating alliance was the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS), a paramilitary wing of the far-right Croatian Party of Rights. HOS, which included both Croats and Bosniaks, supported Bosnian territorial integrity and cooperated with both the ARBiH and HVO. However, its pro-Bosnian stance clashed with the separatist goals of the HVO leadership. In August 1992, HOS commander Blaž Kraljević and his staff were assassinated by HVO soldiers. Following his death, the HOS was disbanded, with its forces absorbed into either the HVO or ARBiH, effectively removing a key pro-unity Croat military force from the equation.

Escalation to Open Conflict

The First Clashes

The fragile alliance finally broke in October 1992. The first armed clash occurred in Novi Travnik over control of a gas station, quickly escalating into town-wide fighting. Days later, a more significant conflict erupted in Prozor, where HVO forces, after several days of fighting, took full control of the municipality, leading to the flight of the Bosniak population and the burning of their homes. These incidents were a prelude to the wider war, often sparked by disputes over military supplies, key facilities, and political power in mixed municipalities.

The Fall of Jajce and its Consequences

In late October 1992, the VRS captured the strategic town of Jajce. The inability of the ARBiH and HVO to form a cooperative defense was a primary reason for its fall. The defeat had severe consequences, triggering a massive refugee crisis. Thousands of Croat refugees fled to Herzegovina and Croatia, while approximately 20,000 Bosniak refugees poured into the HVO-held regions of central Bosnia. This dramatic demographic shift drastically increased ethnic tensions in towns like Bugojno and Travnik, where Croats suddenly found themselves a minority.

The Vance-Owen Peace Plan

In January 1993, the Vance-Owen Peace Plan was proposed, envisioning Bosnia's division into ten ethnically-based autonomous provinces. The Bosnian Croat leadership, whose designated provinces largely aligned with their territorial goals, accepted the plan and attempted to implement it unilaterally. They issued an ultimatum demanding that ARBiH units in designated Croat provinces either subordinate themselves to the HVO or withdraw. The Bosniak leadership rejected this, and the plan is widely seen as a catalyst that transformed localized clashes into an all-out war, as both sides fought to secure control over the territories allocated to them in the proposed maps.

Major Offensives and Atrocities

The Lašva Valley Campaign

In April 1993, the HVO launched a major offensive in the Lašva Valley of central Bosnia. The strategic goal was to connect several Croat-held towns and enclaves. This campaign involved a systematic campaign of ethnic cleansing against the Bosniak population. The most notorious event was the Ahmići massacre on 16 April, where HVO forces attacked the village, killing over 100 Bosniak civilians, including women and children, and destroying homes and the local mosque. The ICTY later classified these events as crimes against humanity.

The Siege of Mostar

The conflict fully engulfed Herzegovina in May 1993 with the start of the Siege of Mostar. The city was divided along the Neretva River, with the HVO controlling the west and the ARBiH holding the east. The ensuing nine-month siege was characterized by brutal urban warfare and intense artillery shelling by the HVO, which caused devastating damage to the eastern part of the city. During the siege, thousands of Bosniak men were interned in HVO-run camps like Heliodrom and Dretelj. The conflict in Mostar is infamously symbolized by the destruction of the historic Stari Most (Old Bridge) by HVO shelling in November 1993.

ARBiH Summer Offensives

By mid-1993, the ARBiH had grown in strength, particularly in central Bosnia, benefiting from a larger manpower pool and increased arms transfers. This allowed them to launch a series of successful offensives. In June, they captured the strategic town of Travnik, followed by Kakanj, triggering an exodus of tens of thousands of Croat civilians. In July, the ARBiH defeated the HVO in the Battle of Bugojno, consolidating their control over much of central Bosnia and completely isolating the Croat enclaves of the Lašva Valley from HVO-held territory in Herzegovina.

Operation Neretva '93

In September 1993, the ARBiH launched one of its largest operations, codenamed Neretva '93, on a 200km front from Gornji Vakuf to south of Mostar. The operation aimed to break the siege of East Mostar and recapture territory in Herzegovina. During this offensive, ARBiH forces committed massacres against Croat civilians and POWs in the villages of Grabovica and Uzdol. Despite initial gains, the offensive ultimately failed to achieve its primary strategic objectives, and the front lines in Herzegovina largely stabilized by October.

The Path to Peace

Winter Stalemate and Final Battles

By late 1993, the conflict had devolved into a brutal war of attrition, with both sides entrenched and exhausted. The HVO in central Bosnia was in a defensive stalemate, completely cut off and struggling for supplies. The ARBiH launched a major winter offensive in December 1993 and January 1994, aiming to split the Vitez enclave. The fighting was exceptionally fierce, particularly around the village of Križančevo selo, where dozens of Croat civilians and soldiers were killed. Despite some initial ARBiH breakthroughs, the HVO, with reorganized leadership, managed to repel the attacks and stabilize the front lines by February 1994.

The Washington Agreement

By early 1994, both sides faced significant military exhaustion and intense international pressure, particularly from the United States. The Clinton administration, seeking to simplify the conflict and create a stronger front against the Serbs, brokered negotiations in Washington, D.C. Under the threat of sanctions and international isolation, Croatian President Tuđman was compelled to abandon his partitionist policies and pressure the Herzeg-Bosnia leadership to negotiate. On 18 March 1994, Bosnian, Herzeg-Bosnian, and Croatian representatives signed the Washington Agreement, officially ending the Croat-Bosniak War.

Creation of the Federation

The Washington Agreement established the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, merging the territories held by the ARBiH and the HVO into a single entity divided into ten autonomous cantons. It also mandated the creation of a joint Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This agreement fundamentally altered the strategic landscape of the Bosnian War, ending the destructive "war within a war" and re-establishing the Croat-Bosniak military alliance. This renewed cooperation was critical in the subsequent joint military operations of 1995 that shifted the military balance against the VRS and paved the way for the Dayton Agreement.

Aftermath and Legacy

War Crimes Prosecutions

The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) prosecuted numerous officials from both sides for crimes committed during the conflict. Seventeen Bosnian Croat officials were convicted, including the six most senior leaders of Herzeg-Bosnia (the "Prlić et al." case), who were found to be part of a joint criminal enterprise with Croatian President Franjo Tuđman to ethnically cleanse Bosniaks from territories intended for a "Greater Croatia." Two senior Bosniak officials were also convicted on the basis of command responsibility for crimes committed by their subordinates, including mujahideen fighters.

Lasting Divisions

The war left deep scars and lasting divisions. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, established by the Washington Agreement and confirmed by the Dayton Agreement, often failed to function as a unified entity. For years after the war, parallel Herzeg-Bosnia structures persisted, particularly in education, finance, and public utilities, subsidized by Croatia. The ethnic cleansing that occurred during the war created homogenous areas, and the return of refugees to their homes in mixed-canton municipalities like Jajce, Stolac, and Travnik was often obstructed and met with violence for years after the peace agreement.

Casualties and Destruction

While precise figures are difficult to ascertain, the conflict resulted in thousands of military and civilian casualties on both sides. In Central Bosnia and the Neretva region, where the fighting was most intense, over 10,000 people were killed in 1993 alone. The war also saw the systematic destruction of cultural and religious heritage. HVO forces damaged or destroyed over 200 mosques, while ARBiH forces damaged or destroyed dozens of Catholic churches. The most iconic symbol of this destruction was the 16th-century Stari Most in Mostar, a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Description	Destroyed by Croat Forces	Damaged by Croat Forces
Congregational mosques	58	80
Small neighbourhood mosques	20	43
Buildings of religious endowments	24	60
Total Islamic Buildings	108	201

Description	Destroyed by Bosniak Forces	Damaged by Bosniak Forces
Churches	8	67
Chapels	19	75
Clergy houses	9	40
Total Catholic Buildings	44	250

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References

ICTY: HadÅ¾ihasanoviÄ & Kubura Case Information Sheet

MagaÅ¡ & Å½aniÄ 2001, p. 355.

KordiÄ & Äerkez Judgement 2001, p. 141.

KordiÄ & Äerkez Judgement 2001, p. 142.

MagaÅ¡ & Å½aniÄ 2001, p. 358.

MagaÅ¡ & Å½aniÄ 2001, p. 170.

Prlic et al. judgement vol.6 2013, pp. 396â397.

KordiÄ & Äerkez Judgement 2001, pp. 153â154.

MagaÅ¡ & Å½aniÄ 2001, p. 175.

UdoviÄki & Å titkovac 2000, p. 192.

Hadzihasanovic & Kubura Judgement Summary 2006, p. 3.

MagaÅ¡ & Å½aniÄ 2001, p. 107.

BlaskiÄ Judgement Summary 2000, p. 5.

KordiÄ & Äerkez Judgement 2001, p. 170.

MagaÅ¡ & Å½aniÄ 2001, p. 366.

Hadzihasanovic & Kubura Judgement Summary 2006, p. 5.

KordiÄ & Äerkez Appeals Judgement Summary 2004, p. 7.

KlemenÄiÄ, Pratt & Schofield 1994, p. 49.

KlemenÄiÄ, Pratt & Schofield 1994, p. 50.

Naletilic & Martinovic Judgement 2003, p. 7.

Prlic et al. judgement vol.4 2013, pp. 8â9.

Hadzihasanovic & Kubura Judgement Summary 2006, p. 6.

KordiÄ & Äerkez Judgement 2001, pp. 226â227.

Naletilic & Martinovic Judgement 2003, p. 13.

KordiÄ & Äerkez Appeals Judgement Summary 2004, pp. 150â153.

Hadzihasanovic & Kubura Judgement Summary 2006, p. 8.

Gasal, Kukavica and Dautovic Case Information 2011.

Halilovic Judgement Summary 2005, pp. 3â4.

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia & PrliÄ et al. CIS, p. 6.

KlemenÄiÄ, Pratt & Schofield 1994, pp. 57â59.

MagaÅ¡ & Å½aniÄ 2001, p. 369.

KlemenÄiÄ, Pratt & Schofield 1994, p. 59.

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia & 29 May 2013.

Prlic et al. judgement vol.6 2013, pp. 212, 374, 377.

Islam and Bosnia: Conflict Resolution and Foreign Policy in Multi-Ethnic States, Maya Shatzmiller, p. 100, 2002

TataloviÄ & JakeÅ¡eviÄ 2008, pp. 140â141.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Croat–Bosniak War Wikipedia page

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This is not professional historical or political advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for scholarly research or consultation with qualified historians, political scientists, or legal experts. The Yugoslav Wars are a complex and sensitive topic, and this page represents a simplified overview. Always consult multiple academic sources for a comprehensive understanding. Never disregard professional advice because of something you have read on this website.

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A War Within a War

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

📜 Political Background & Rising Tensions

🗳️ The Rise of Nationalist Parties

🇷🇸 Serbian Ambitions & JNA Armament

🇭🇷 Croatian Aspirations & Herzeg-Bosnia

🤝 The Unraveling Alliance

🛡️ A Fragile United Front

🗺️ Secret Deals and Growing Mistrust

⚔️ The Fall of HOS

💥 Escalation to Open Conflict

🔥 The First Clashes

📉 The Fall of Jajce and its Consequences

📜 The Vance-Owen Peace Plan

⚔️ Major Offensives and Atrocities

🏞️ The Lašva Valley Campaign

🌉 The Siege of Mostar

📈 ARBiH Summer Offensives

OPERATION NERETVA '93 Operation Neretva '93

🕊️ The Path to Peace

❄️ Winter Stalemate and Final Battles

🇺🇸 The Washington Agreement

🇧🇦 Creation of the Federation

🏛️ Aftermath and Legacy

⚖️ War Crimes Prosecutions

💔 Lasting Divisions

📊 Casualties and Destruction

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Political Background & Rising Tensions

The Rise of Nationalist Parties

Serbian Ambitions & JNA Armament

Croatian Aspirations & Herzeg-Bosnia

The Unraveling Alliance

A Fragile United Front

Secret Deals and Growing Mistrust

The Fall of HOS

Escalation to Open Conflict

The First Clashes

The Fall of Jajce and its Consequences

The Vance-Owen Peace Plan

Major Offensives and Atrocities

The Lašva Valley Campaign

The Siege of Mostar

ARBiH Summer Offensives

Operation Neretva '93

The Path to Peace

Winter Stalemate and Final Battles

The Washington Agreement

Creation of the Federation

Aftermath and Legacy

War Crimes Prosecutions

Lasting Divisions

Casualties and Destruction

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice