What is the fundamental purpose of a flight simulator?

A flight simulator is a device designed to artificially replicate the experience of flying an aircraft and its surrounding environment. Its primary uses include training aircrew, aiding in aircraft design, and conducting research into aircraft characteristics and control systems.

How has the definition of 'flight simulator' evolved over time, particularly concerning regulatory terms?

Historically, 'flight simulator' referred to devices that closely mimicked aircraft behavior across various conditions. More recently, the term 'full flight simulator' is used for these high-fidelity devices, while the broader term 'flight simulation training device' (FSTD) encompasses a wider range of training equipment, aligning more with the general English usage of 'flight simulator'.

What is considered the precursor to modern flight simulators, and when was it developed?

The 'Tonneau Antoinette' (Antoinette barrel), created by the Antoinette company around 1910 on the initiative of French commanders Clolus and Laffont and Lieutenant Clavenad, is considered an early precursor to flight simulators. These were ground-based training aircraft designed for military pilots.

How were flight simulators utilized during World War I?

During World War I, ground-based simulators were developed to train new pilots in air gunnery. These simulators focused on teaching the skill of 'deflection shooting,' which involves aiming ahead of a moving target to account for bullet travel time.

Who invented the Link Trainer, and what was its significance in early flight simulation?

The Link Trainer was invented by Edwin Link, who began building it in 1927 in Binghamton, New York. It became the best-known early flight simulation device and is considered to have marked the start of the world flight simulation industry when the U.S. Army Air Force purchased six units in 1934.

What technologies from the player piano industry influenced the design of the Link Trainer?

Edwin Link, whose family firm manufactured player pianos and organs, utilized components like leather bellows and reed switches in the Link Trainer. These familiar elements helped him create the device's pneumatic motion platform and control systems.

What event led to the U.S. Army Air Force's significant adoption of the Link Trainer?

The U.S. Army Air Force's adoption of the Link Trainer surged in 1934 when they were tasked with flying postal mail, requiring operations in adverse weather conditions for which they had insufficient training. After several pilot fatalities during this service, the Army recalled Link's trainer, leading to a substantial purchase.

How extensively was the Link Trainer used during World War II?

The Link Trainer was the principal pilot trainer during World War II, with approximately 10,000 units produced. These simulators trained around 500,000 pilots from Allied nations, with nearly all U.S. Army Air Force pilots receiving training on them.

What specialized simulator was developed during World War II for navigation training?

The Celestial Navigation Trainer, developed in 1941, was used for training bomber crews in navigating by the stars. This simulator was 13.7 meters (45 feet) high and allowed crews to practice using sextants with a projected display of the night sky.

What advancements marked the first modern flight simulators for commercial aircraft in the 1950s?

In 1954, United Airlines purchased flight simulators from Curtiss-Wright that incorporated visuals, sound, and movement. These additions distinguished them from earlier models and represented the first generation of modern flight simulators for commercial aviation.

What was the Jacobs Jaycopter, and where did it find later use?

The Jacobs Jaycopter was an early helicopter simulator designed to reduce training costs. After its initial purpose, it was later sold as a funfair ride at the 1964-65 New York World's Fair.

What are the current trends in the flight simulator manufacturing industry?

The flight simulator industry is currently experiencing consolidation and vertical integration, driven by the double-digit growth in training services. Major manufacturers like CAE are expanding their training operations, sometimes generating more revenue from training than from simulator production itself.

Which company is the largest manufacturer of flight simulators, and what is its market share?

The largest manufacturer of flight simulators is the Canadian company CAE Inc., which holds approximately a 70% market share. CAE has been manufacturing training devices for 70 years and expanded into training services in 2000.

How do manufacturers like L3 CTS and TRU Simulation + Training fit into the modern flight simulator market?

L3 CTS entered the market by acquiring Thales Training & Simulation's manufacturing plant and has since acquired other training schools. TRU Simulation + Training was formed by merging simulators from Textron Aviation with Mechtronix, OPINICUS, and ProFlight, focusing on simulators for specific aircraft like the 737 MAX and 777X.

What role do aircraft manufacturers like Airbus and Boeing play in the simulator market today?

Aircraft manufacturers such as Airbus and Boeing have invested in their own training centers. Their strategy aims to achieve higher profit margins through training services compared to aircraft manufacturing or maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) operations, often competing directly with simulator suppliers like CAE and L3.

What is the approximate number of commercial airline simulators in service globally, and what are the main types?

As of June 2018, there were about 1,270 commercial airline simulators in service worldwide. Of these, 85% were Full Flight Simulators (FFS) and 15% were Flight Training Devices (FTD).

Which regions have the highest concentration of flight training devices?

North America leads in the global distribution of training devices with 38%, followed by Asia-Pacific with 25%, and Europe with 24%.

What are the most simulated aircraft types in the commercial airline industry?

Boeing aircraft models constitute 45% of all simulated aircraft, followed by Airbus with 35%. Embraer accounts for 7%, Bombardier for 6%, and ATR for 3% of the simulated fleet.

What are the primary applications of flight simulators in pilot training?

Flight simulators are primarily used for flight training, ranging from basic cockpit procedure practice and familiarization to instrument flight training. Depending on their certification level, they can also be used to credit flight hours towards pilot licenses and for specialized training like instrument rating revalidation or obtaining type ratings for specific aircraft.

How are flight simulators used in the aircraft design process?

Engineering flight simulators are employed during the aircraft design process as an alternative to actual flight tests. They allow for rapid error detection, reducing development risks and costs, and can accommodate measurement equipment that might be impractical on a real aircraft.

Beyond pilots, what other crew roles can be trained using flight simulators?

Flight simulators can also train other crew members, such as gunners on military aircraft or hoist operators. Additionally, specialized simulators exist for tasks like aircraft evacuation procedures in case of water crashes and for aircraft maintenance training.

What is the purpose of a Qualification Approval Guide (QAG) in simulator approval?

A Qualification Approval Guide (QAG) is a document submitted to regulatory bodies like the FAA that contains the specifications for a simulator model line. Once approved, it automatically qualifies all future devices conforming to its specifications, eliminating the need for individual evaluations.

What is a Master Qualification Test Guide (MQTG), and how is it used in simulator qualification?

A Master Qualification Test Guide (MQTG) is a document specific to a unique simulator device, containing objective, functional, and subjective tests to prove its representativeness compared to the actual aircraft. It is proposed to Civil Aviation Authorities (CAAs) for qualification and is periodically re-run to ensure continuous compliance.

What are the FAA categories for Aviation Training Devices (ATDs)?

The FAA categorizes ATDs into Basic ATD (BATD), used for Private Pilot and instrument rating training, and Advanced ATD (AATD), which supports training for Private Pilot, instrument rating, Commercial Pilot, Airline Transport Pilot (ATP), and Flight Instructor certificates.

Describe the different levels of FAA Flight Training Devices (FTDs).

FAA FTDs range from Level 4 (Cockpit Procedures Trainer with accurate systems but no aerodynamic model) to Level 7. Level 5 requires aerodynamic programming and systems modeling for a family of aircraft, Level 6 adds aircraft-specific aerodynamics and controls, and Level 7 requires all these plus a vibration system and a visual system.

What distinguishes the FAA's Full Flight Simulator (FFS) Levels A through D?

FAA FFS Levels are distinguished by increasing fidelity. Level A requires a 3-degree-of-freedom motion system for airplanes. Level B adds a higher-fidelity aerodynamic model. Level C mandates a 6-degree-of-freedom motion platform and a wider visual field of view (75 degrees). Level D, the highest, includes all Level C requirements plus a 150-degree collimated visual display, realistic sounds, and special motion/visual effects.

What are the EASA categories for Flight Navigation and Procedures Trainers (FNPT)?

EASA FNPTs include Level I, requiring a real-scale cockpit and representative controls. Level II adds ground effect modeling, icing effects, and varied lighting conditions for visuals. Level III is specific to helicopters and requires validation flights for its model, along with a wider field of view. FNPTs can also meet MCC (Multi-Crew Cooperation) requirements.

How do EASA's Flight Training Device (FTD) categories differ from FNPTs?

EASA FTDs are similar to FNPTs but have different requirements. FTD Level 1 may lack a visual system but requires aircraft systems to operate based on pilot inputs without instructor intervention. FTD Level 2 includes a visual system, additional crew stations, and representative control dynamics. FTD Level 3 is helicopter-specific, demanding validated model data and a wider field of view.

What are the key characteristics of EASA's Full Flight Simulator (FFS) Levels A through D?

EASA FFS Levels progress in complexity: Level A requires a 3-degree-of-freedom motion system (pitch, roll, heave). Level B adds all 6 degrees of freedom and ground handling modeling. Level C includes simulation of runway conditions and icing, with a more detailed aerodynamic model. Level D incorporates characteristic vibrations, realistic noise levels, and advanced motion and visual systems.

What is a 'human-in-the-loop' system in the context of flight simulators?

A flight simulator is a 'human-in-the-loop' system because it constantly interacts with a human user. The user provides inputs via flight controls and instruments, and the simulator updates its internal state, solves motion equations, and presents the results visually, audibly, and through motion feedback.

How do flight simulators facilitate multi-crew cooperation (MCC) training?

Flight simulators can be equipped for multiple users to practice cooperative tasks, as required for MCC training. This allows crew members to interact and train together in a simulated flight environment, enhancing teamwork and communication skills.

What is 'parallel simulation' or 'distributed simulation' in the context of flight simulators?

Parallel or distributed simulation involves connecting multiple simulators together. This setup is often used for military applications, such as wargames, where different aircraft or personnel need to cooperate, and it relies on standards like SIMNET, DIS, and HLA for interoperability.

What are the core components of a flight simulator's simulation model?

The central element of a simulation model is the set of equations of motion that govern the aircraft's translational and rotational movements. These equations are solved rapidly, typically 50-60 times per second, to create a perception of fluid motion. The models also incorporate aerodynamical data, system states, and avionics.

Why is real-time simulation crucial, and what challenges does it present?

Real-time simulation is essential for user interaction and realism. Low refresh rates can reduce immersion and potentially cause 'simulator sickness.' The challenge lies in achieving the required level of realism within strict latency limits (the delay between input and reaction), often requiring trade-offs like using pre-calculated data instead of full computational fluid dynamics models.

How do flight simulators typically model aerodynamic forces?

Instead of performing complex real-time computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations, flight simulators often use databases of pre-calculated results or data from actual flights. Aerodynamic forces, like lift coefficient, are frequently defined in terms of motion parameters such as angle of attack, balancing computational cost with necessary realism.

What is the role of cockpit instruments and controls in flight simulators?

Cockpit instruments and controls are critical for pilot interaction and skill transfer. Regulations specify how closely these must match the real aircraft. Lower-level simulators might use simple displays or spring-loaded controls, while higher-fidelity simulators may use actual aircraft parts or employ force feedback systems to replicate control feel and dynamic responses.

What advancements have been made in simulator control systems?

To better replicate control forces and dynamic responses, many simulators are equipped with actively driven force feedback systems. Vibration actuators are also incorporated, either to simulate helicopter vibrations or to replicate features like a stick shaker found in some aircraft.

What are the challenges and potential of using Virtual Reality (VR) in flight simulators?

VR simulators using head-mounted displays (HMDs) offer a complete field of view and reduce simulator size. While used in research and certified FSTDs, a key challenge is the lack of tactile feedback, which can negatively impact user performance compared to traditional simulators.

How has flight simulator visual system technology contributed to modern computer graphics?

The visual systems developed for flight simulators were crucial precursors to modern 3D computer graphics and CGI. The need for believable visual synthesis, combined with military training requirements, drove advancements in algorithms and hardware, influencing techniques like texture mapping and level-of-detail (LOD) systems still used today.

What is a Stewart platform, and why is it important in simulator motion systems?

A Stewart platform is a type of motion system that uses six actuators to provide simultaneous movement in all six degrees of freedom (pitch, roll, yaw, heave, sway, surge). It has become the preferred choice for high-fidelity simulators, with regulations often requiring this 'synergistic' 6-DOF motion.

What are the limitations of simulator motion systems compared to real aircraft?

Simulator motion systems have a limited range of movement, which restricts their ability to accurately replicate sustained accelerations. To compensate, separate models are used to approximate the cues provided to the pilot's vestibular system within these constraints.

What is 'handling fidelity' in flight simulation, and how is it assessed?

Handling fidelity refers to how closely a simulator replicates the aircraft's control operations, responses to inputs, and reactions to external forces. It is assessed using pilot opinions and standardized rating scales, such as the Cooper-Harper scale, to evaluate the quality of the simulated flight experience.

Can technologies like dynamic seats offer similar training benefits to large motion systems?

Recent studies suggest that technologies like vibration or dynamic seats within flight simulators can be as effective for training delivery as large, expensive 6-DOF motion-based full flight simulators. This indicates that targeted sensory feedback can significantly contribute to effective pilot training.

What is the Vertical Motion Simulator (VMS) at NASA/Ames, and what kind of research is conducted there?

The Vertical Motion Simulator (VMS) at NASA Ames Research Center is the world's largest flight simulator, featuring a 60-foot vertical movement range. It has been used for simulations ranging from blimps to the Space Shuttle, including investigating pilot-induced oscillations (PIOs) during shuttle landings and testing new control algorithms.

What are disorientation training simulators, and what is a notable example?

Disorientation training simulators are designed to simulate high-G forces and complex motion environments. The Desdemona simulator, manufactured by AMST in Austria and located at TNO Research Institute in the Netherlands, is a complex example that combines gimballed cockpit movement, vertical motion, and a rotating platform to achieve sustained G-forces.

What is the significance of the 'Authority control' section in the provided text?

The 'Authority control' section links the article topic to various databases (like Library of Congress, National Library of Argentina, etc.) and identifiers (like Wikidata). This helps ensure the accuracy and consistency of information about flight simulators across different knowledge bases and systems.

What types of aircraft are most commonly simulated, according to the text?

The text indicates that Boeing aircraft are the most simulated, making up 45% of all simulated aircraft, followed by Airbus (35%), Embraer (7%), Bombardier (6%), and ATR (3%).

What is the role of 'latency' in flight simulation technology?

Latency refers to the delay between a pilot's input (e.g., moving a control stick) and the simulator's response. Regulations set limits on maximum latency, as high latency can reduce realism, negatively impact training transfer, and potentially contribute to simulator sickness.

How do simulators handle the simulation of aircraft systems?

Simulators replicate aircraft systems through software modeling. The level of detail varies by simulator class; simpler devices might only model basic procedures, while higher-level simulators require accurate modeling of complex systems, including their avionics and how they respond to pilot inputs.

What is the purpose of visual systems in flight simulators?

Visual systems provide the outside view from the aircraft, which is crucial for navigation, especially under visual flight rules. Key parameters include the field of view, display shape (flat, cylindrical, spherical), projection method (front or back), and the use of collimated displays to eliminate parallax effects for enhanced realism.

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What is a Flight Simulator?

Core Functionality

A flight simulator is a sophisticated device engineered to artificially replicate the experience of aircraft flight and its surrounding environmental conditions. Its primary purpose is to facilitate pilot training, aid in aircraft design, and support research into aircraft characteristics and handling qualities.¹ It meticulously recreates the complex aerodynamic principles governing flight, the aircraft's response to control inputs, and the impact of various environmental factors such as air density, turbulence, and weather phenomena.

Defining the Term

While the general understanding of a "flight simulator" is broad, technical definitions distinguish between various levels of fidelity. Historically, regulations referred to devices capable of closely mimicking aircraft behavior across diverse conditions as "full flight simulators." More contemporary terminology uses "Flight Simulation Training Device" (FSTD) as an umbrella term encompassing a range of devices used for pilot training, aligning more closely with the common English usage.²³⁴

Simulation Models

At the heart of any flight simulator lies its simulation model, which mathematically represents the aircraft's behavior. These models solve complex equations of motion, typically 50 to 60 times per second, to render realistic translational and rotational movements.²³ The fidelity of these models varies significantly, with simpler simulators omitting certain sub-models, while advanced systems strive for near-perfect replication of aerodynamic forces, avionics, and system responses.

Historical Trajectory

Early Innovations

The genesis of flight simulation can be traced back to the early 20th century. The "Tonneau Antoinette," developed by the Antoinette company around 1910, is considered a precursor. During World War I, rudimentary ground-based simulators emerged to train pilots in essential skills like aerial gunnery, specifically the concept of lead angle for aiming.⁵

The Link Trainer Era

The most significant early development was the Link Trainer, patented by Edwin Link in 1929. Initially met with limited interest, its adoption surged in 1934 when the U.S. Army Air Force, facing high casualties during mail delivery flights in adverse weather, procured six units. This marked the true beginning of the flight simulation industry.⁶⁷⁸ During World War II, approximately 10,000 Link Trainers were produced, training hundreds of thousands of Allied pilots.

Post-War Advancements

The mid-20th century saw the introduction of more sophisticated simulators for commercial aviation. In 1954, United Airlines invested in four advanced simulators featuring visuals, sound, and movement, setting the stage for modern flight training devices.⁹ The development continued with specialized trainers, such as the Jacobs Jaycopter for helicopter training, and the integration of more complex systems and visual displays.

Diverse Applications

Pilot Training

The predominant use of flight simulators is for pilot training, ranging from basic cockpit familiarization and emergency procedure drills to advanced instrument flight training and type-specific ratings.¹⁷¹⁸ Simulators are certified by aviation authorities (like the FAA and EASA) to credit flight hours, significantly reducing the cost and risk associated with real-world flight training. They are essential for maintaining pilot proficiency and obtaining type ratings for specific aircraft models.²⁰

Aircraft Design & Research

In the aerospace engineering domain, flight simulators serve as invaluable tools during the aircraft design process. They enable engineers to conduct virtual flight tests, identify design flaws early, and refine control handling qualities without the inherent risks and costs of physical prototypes.²² This allows for the integration of extensive measurement equipment and the testing of various configurations throughout the design lifecycle.

Crew & Maintenance Training

Beyond pilots, simulators are adapted for training other aviation personnel, including air gunners, navigators, and hoist operators.²⁴²⁵ Furthermore, the complexity of modern aircraft systems has led to the development of specialized maintenance simulators, enhancing training efficiency and safety for ground crews.²⁷²⁸

Technological Components

Simulator Structure

Flight simulators operate as human-in-the-loop systems, integrating pilot inputs with complex computational models. Key components include the flight controls, instrument panels, instructor stations, and the core simulation engine. The output is presented to the user via visual, auditory, motion, and tactile feedback channels, creating an immersive and realistic training environment.³⁸ Advanced simulators can also be networked for multi-crew cooperation or distributed simulation exercises.³⁹

Visual Systems

The visual system provides the crucial outside-world perspective, essential for visual flight rules operations. Field of view is a critical parameter, with fighter aircraft and helicopters requiring expansive visual coverage.⁴⁵ Modern systems employ multiple projectors, advanced screen geometries (cylindrical, spherical), and sophisticated projection techniques like collimated displays to minimize parallax and enhance realism, especially for distant objects.⁴⁸⁵¹ Virtual reality (VR) headsets are also emerging as a compact and immersive alternative.⁵²

Motion Systems

Motion systems provide critical cues for pitch, roll, yaw, and heave. While early systems used simpler gimbal-like mechanisms, the Stewart platform, offering synergistic 6-degree-of-freedom motion, is now prevalent.⁵⁶⁵⁷ These systems have limitations in simulating sustained accelerations, necessitating sophisticated algorithms to approximate vestibular cues.²³ Recent research suggests that technologies like dynamic seats and vibration actuators can offer comparable training effectiveness to large, expensive motion platforms.⁵⁸⁵⁹

Qualification & Standards

Regulatory Frameworks

Flight simulators are rigorously qualified and approved by aviation regulatory bodies to ensure their effectiveness in training. Key authorities include the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). These agencies establish detailed standards and classifications for various types of training devices, from basic simulators to full flight simulators.

FAA Categories

The FAA categorizes Aviation Training Devices (ATDs) and Flight Training Devices (FTDs). ATDs include Basic (BATD) and Advanced (AATD) levels, suitable for private pilot and instrument ratings. FTDs range from Level 4 (procedure trainers) to Level 7 (full motion, visual systems). Full Flight Simulators (FFS) are classified from Level A to Level D, with Level D representing the highest fidelity, requiring 6-DOF motion, extensive visual fields, and realistic sound and effects.³³³⁴³⁵

FAA Basic ATD (BATD): Supports procedural and operational tasks for Private Pilot Certificate and instrument rating.
FAA Advanced ATD (AATD): Supports training for Private, Commercial, ATP, and Flight Instructor Certificates.
FAA FTD Levels 4-7: Progressively more sophisticated, requiring aerodynamic models, specific aircraft configurations, and visual/motion systems.
FAA FFS Levels A-D: Highest fidelity, with Level D demanding 6-DOF motion, wide-field visual displays, and comprehensive environmental effects.

EASA Categories

EASA (formerly JAA) categorizes devices similarly, including Basic Instrument Training Devices (BITD), Flight Navigation and Procedures Trainers (FNPT Levels I-III), Flight Training Devices (FTD Levels 1-3), and Full Flight Simulators (FFS Levels A-D). These classifications ensure that simulators meet stringent requirements for representing aircraft systems, aerodynamics, and operational environments.³³⁶

BITD (Airplanes): Basic instrument flight procedures training.
FNPT Levels I-III: Replicates aircraft systems, ground handling, and environmental conditions; Level III is helicopter-specific.
MCC: Additional requirements for FNPT devices used for multi-crew cooperation training.
FTD Levels 1-3: Includes visual systems and requires accurate system operation; Level 3 is helicopter-specific with validation flights.
FFS Levels A-D: Simulates motion, noise, and detailed aerodynamics; Level D offers the highest fidelity with 6-DOF motion and realistic cockpit feedback.

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References

AC-61-136A Appendix 1 and 2

14 CFR Part 60, Appendices B and D

14 CFR Part 60, Appendices A and C

Baarspul, M. (1990) A review of flight simulation techniques. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 22, 1â20.

Roza, M., M. Wentink and Ph. Feenstra. "Performance Testing of the Desdemona Motion System." AIAA MST, Hilton Head, South Carolina, 20â23 August 2007.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Flight simulator Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This content has been generated by an AI model and is intended for educational and informational purposes only. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy based on the provided source material, it may not encompass all nuances or the most current information available. The data is derived from publicly accessible sources, and its completeness or absolute accuracy cannot be guaranteed.

This is not professional aviation advice. The information presented here should not substitute for consultation with certified aviation professionals, regulatory bodies, or official documentation. Always refer to authoritative sources for flight training, aircraft operation, and safety-critical decisions. Reliance on this information is solely at the user's own risk.

The creators of this page are not liable for any errors, omissions, or consequences arising from the use of this information.

Simulating Skies

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What is a Flight Simulator? ✈️

🛩️ Core Functionality

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📊 Simulation Models

Historical Trajectory 🕰️

📜 Early Innovations

🔗 The Link Trainer Era

✈️ Post-War Advancements

Diverse Applications 🛠️

🧑‍🏫 Pilot Training

💡 Aircraft Design & Research

🛡️ Crew & Maintenance Training

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🖼️ Visual Systems

🤸 Motion Systems

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is a Flight Simulator?

Core Functionality

Defining the Term

Simulation Models

Historical Trajectory

Early Innovations

The Link Trainer Era

Post-War Advancements

Diverse Applications

Pilot Training

Aircraft Design & Research

Crew & Maintenance Training

Technological Components

Simulator Structure

Visual Systems

Motion Systems

Qualification & Standards

Regulatory Frameworks

FAA Categories

EASA Categories

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice