What is the fundamental definition of fresco painting?

Fresco is a mural painting technique executed on freshly laid, wet lime plaster. The water used as a vehicle for the dry pigment allows the painting to become an integral part of the wall as the plaster dries and sets.

What is the origin of the word fresco and what does it signify?

The term 'fresco' originates from the Italian adjective 'fresco,' meaning fresh. This name highlights the technique's reliance on applying paint to wet plaster, contrasting it with methods applied to dry surfaces.

How does the fresco technique integrate the painting with the wall itself?

In fresco painting, water acts as the medium for the pigments, allowing them to merge with the plaster. As the plaster dries and undergoes a chemical reaction, the pigment becomes permanently bonded within the wall structure, making the artwork an inseparable part of the surface.

What is a common misconception regarding the term fresco in English?

It is a common and inaccurate practice in English to use the term 'fresco' to refer to any wall painting, regardless of the specific plaster technology or binding medium used. This can lead to a misunderstanding that painting on wet lime plaster was the most widespread wall painting method historically and geographically.

How does fresco-secco differ from buon fresco?

Fresco-secco, or 'dry fresco,' is a technique where paintings are applied to dry plaster. Unlike buon fresco, which integrates pigment into wet plaster, fresco-secco requires a binding medium, such as egg, glue, or oil, to adhere the pigment to the wall.

Describe the process of buon fresco, focusing on the plaster and pigment.

Buon fresco involves applying pigment mixed with plain water onto a thin layer of wet lime plaster, known as the intonaco. The pigment is absorbed into the wet plaster, and as it dries and undergoes carbonation, the pigment becomes chemically fixed within the plaster itself, eliminating the need for a separate binder.

What chemical reaction is central to the fresco technique, and what are the steps involved in creating lime plaster?

The central chemical reaction in fresco painting is the carbonation of lime. This process begins with the calcination of limestone (calcium carbonate) into quicklime (calcium oxide), followed by slaking quicklime with water to form calcium hydroxide. Finally, when the calcium hydroxide in the plaster reacts with carbon dioxide in the air, it sets into calcium carbonate, binding the pigment.

What is the purpose of the sinopia sketch in fresco painting?

A sinopia is a reddish-brown pigment used by artists to sketch their compositions directly onto the rough underlayer of plaster, called the arriccio, before the final intonaco layer is applied. These sketches, which would never be seen in the final artwork, served as guides for the fresco.

What is a 'giornata' in the context of fresco painting, and how can it be identified?

A giornata, meaning 'day's work' in Italian, refers to the specific area of plaster that an artist planned to complete in a single day. These sections are often discernible in large frescoes as faint seams where the plaster was applied and painted, separating one day's work from the next.

What are the challenges and limitations associated with the buon fresco technique?

The primary challenge of buon fresco is the time constraint imposed by the drying plaster. Artists must complete their work within a limited timeframe, typically seven to nine hours, before the intonaco dries. If mistakes are made or if an area is left unpainted, the plaster must be removed and reapplied, or corrections must be made using the less durable a secco technique.

What is 'mezzo-fresco,' and how does it compare to buon fresco and fresco-secco?

Mezzo-fresco is a technique where the painting is applied to plaster that is nearly dry, rather than fully wet or completely dry. This method, which became prevalent by the end of the sixteenth century, offered some advantages of a secco work, such as being quicker and allowing for easier corrections, while still achieving better integration than pure a secco.

What were the primary advantages of using the a secco technique?

The main advantages of the a secco technique were that it was quicker to execute, allowed for easier correction of mistakes, and resulted in less color variation between application and drying compared to buon fresco. Additionally, it permitted the use of a broader range of pigments that might not react well with the alkaline environment of wet lime plaster.

What specific color, like blue, presented a challenge for true fresco painting, and why?

Blue pigments, such as azurite and lapis lazuli, were particularly challenging for true fresco painting. These pigments did not perform well in the highly alkaline environment of wet lime plaster, often leading artists to apply them using the a secco method.

How did artists like Michelangelo and Raphael use techniques to enhance depth and focus in their frescoes?

Artists like Michelangelo and Raphael employed techniques such as scraping indentations into the wet plaster to create illusions of depth and to emphasize certain areas. For example, the eyes in Raphael's 'School of Athens' were sunken in to appear more pensive, and Michelangelo used similar outlining techniques to draw attention to his figures.

When was the fresco technique first employed, and what period is it strongly associated with?

The fresco technique has been used since antiquity. However, it is most strongly and famously associated with Italian Renaissance painting, a period that saw its extensive and masterful application.

What is considered the earliest known Egyptian fresco, and from what period does it date?

The earliest known Egyptian fresco was discovered in Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis and is dated to the Naqada II period, approximately 3500–3200 BCE. It depicts various scenes, including a 'Master of Animals' motif and depictions of boats.

Are all ancient Egyptian wall paintings considered frescoes?

No, not all ancient Egyptian wall paintings are considered frescoes. While Egyptians painted many tombs and houses, the text specifies that these wall paintings were not typically executed using the fresco technique, which involves painting on wet plaster.

What is an example of an early fresco from Mesopotamia, and when does it date?

An old fresco from Mesopotamia is the 'Investiture of Zimri-Lim,' which dates from the early 18th century BC and is located in modern-day Syria. This artwork provides an example of early fresco use in the region.

Where are the oldest frescoes created using the buon fresco method found, and from what era?

The oldest frescoes executed using the buon fresco method are found among the Aegean civilizations, specifically in Minoan art from Crete and other Aegean islands. These date back to the first half of the second millennium BCE, during the Bronze Age.

What is the 'Bull-Leaping Fresco,' and where is it found?

The 'Bull-Leaping Fresco' is a famous example of Minoan art, depicting a ceremonial activity involving individuals leaping over bulls. While not explicitly stated where this specific fresco is found in the text, it is mentioned as one of the most famous Minoan frescoes from the Aegean.

What are some theories regarding the spread of fresco art from Crete to other Mediterranean regions?

Some art historians theorize that fresco artists from Crete may have traveled to various locations around the Mediterranean, possibly as part of trade exchanges. This possibility highlights the importance of fresco art within the societies of that era.

What type of wall painting was most common in Egyptian tombs?

The most common form of wall painting found in Egyptian tombs utilized the a secco technique, rather than true fresco. This means the paintings were applied to dry plaster, often requiring binders to adhere the pigments.

What are some notable examples of frescoes from ancient Greece, and where were they discovered?

Few ancient Greek frescoes have survived. However, a significant discovery was made in the Tomb of the Diver near Paestum, a Greek colony in southern Italy, containing frescoes dating back to 470 BC. These depict scenes of ancient Greek life, including a symposium and a man diving into the sea.

What are Etruscan frescoes, and where have significant examples been found?

Etruscan frescoes are wall paintings created by the Etruscan civilization. Significant examples have been found in tombs, such as the Tomb of Orcus near Veii and the Tomb of the Triclinium in Tarquinia, Italy, dating back to periods like the 4th century BC.

What are the Thracian frescoes of the Tomb of Kazanlak, and what is their significance?

The Thracian frescoes of the Tomb of Kazanlak are richly decorated wall paintings dating back to the 4th century BC. This tomb is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, highlighting the cultural and historical importance of these frescoes.

How were Roman frescoes, such as those in Pompeii and Herculaneum, created?

Roman frescoes, including those found in Pompeii and Herculaneum, were typically created using the buon fresco technique. This involved painting directly onto the still-damp plaster of the wall, ensuring the artwork became an integral, colored part of the wall itself.

Where can ancient Christian frescoes be found in Roman contexts?

Ancient Christian frescoes from the 1st to 2nd centuries AD can be found in the catacombs located beneath Rome. These frescoes offer insights into early Christian art and symbolism.

What Byzantine icons, related to frescoes, have been found in various locations?

Byzantine icons, which can be considered a form of wall painting, have been discovered in locations such as Cyprus, Crete, Ephesus, Cappadocia, and Antioch. These works reflect the artistic styles and religious practices of the Byzantine era.

Where are valuable ancient and early medieval frescoes preserved in India, and what is the oldest known example?

India preserves valuable ancient and early medieval frescoes in over 20 locations, primarily in rock-cut cave temples. The oldest known frescoes in India are found in the Ajanta Caves, dating from approximately 200 BC to 600 AD.

What do the frescoes in the Ajanta Caves depict, and when were they created?

The frescoes in the Ajanta Caves depict the Jataka tales, which are stories recounting the previous lives of the Buddha as a Bodhisattva. These were created between approximately 200 BC and 600 AD.

What technique was used for the Chola paintings discovered in the Brihadisvara Temple?

The Chola paintings discovered in the Brihadisvara Temple were created using a technique where a smooth batter of limestone mixture was applied over the stones. This layer would set in two to three days, allowing large paintings to be executed with natural organic pigments within that timeframe.

How were frescoes used during the Mughal Era in India?

During the Mughal Era in India, frescoes were utilized for interior decoration, particularly on walls and within the ceilings of domes. This period saw the application of fresco techniques for ornamental and architectural enhancement.

Describe the Sigiriya Frescoes of Sri Lanka, including their approximate date and possible subject matter.

The Sigiriya Frescoes are located in Sigiriya, Sri Lanka, and were painted during the reign of King Kashyapa I (477–495 AD). They are generally believed to depict women from the royal court, portrayed as celestial nymphs, possibly showering flowers.

What is the 'fresco lustro' technique used in Sri Lanka, and what are its benefits?

The 'fresco lustro' technique, used for the Sigiriya paintings, is similar to pure fresco but includes a mild binding agent or glue. This addition enhances the painting's durability, which has allowed the Sigiriya Frescoes to survive for over 1,500 years despite being exposed to the elements.

How did the Middle Ages and Renaissance periods see a resurgence in fresco painting, particularly in Italy?

The late Middle Ages and the Renaissance marked a significant period for fresco painting, especially in Italy. This resurgence coincided with a reevaluation of murals within religious liturgy, leading to their widespread use in churches and government buildings.

What role did Romanesque churches in Catalonia play in the use of frescoes?

Romanesque churches in Catalonia were richly decorated with frescoes during the 12th and 13th centuries. These paintings served both decorative purposes and educational roles for the largely illiterate congregations, with many examples now housed in the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya in Barcelona.

Where can church wall paintings from the Middle Ages be found in Denmark and Sweden?

Church wall paintings, known as kalkmalerier, from the Middle Ages are found in approximately 600 Danish churches. Similar medieval frescoes can also be seen in churches located in the southern parts of Sweden, which were historically part of Denmark.

What is a notable example of Islamic fresco painting from the 8th century?

A rare example of Islamic fresco painting from the 8th century can be found in Qasr Amra, an Umayyad desert palace. This site showcases the application of fresco techniques within Islamic art during that period.

Who was Gianbattista Tiepolo, and what is his significance in the context of early modern European fresco painting?

Gianbattista Tiepolo is considered arguably the last major exponent of the grand fresco tradition in early modern Europe. He created extensive fresco schemes for palaces in Madrid and Würzburg, Germany, continuing the legacy of large-scale fresco decoration.

What are the painted monasteries of northern Romania known for, and when were they created?

The painted monasteries of northern Romania, located in the historical region of Moldavia, are renowned for being completely covered inside and out with frescoes. These were created from the last quarter of the 15th century to the second quarter of the 16th century, with notable examples including Voroneț, Arbore, Humor, and Moldovița.

Who was Henri Clément Serveau, and what were some of his contributions to fresco art?

Henri Clément Serveau was a French artist who created several frescoes, including a significant work for the Lycée de Meaux. He also directed the École de fresques and decorated pavilions for the 1937 Paris International Exposition, with some of his works now housed in the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris.

What is the Foujita chapel in Reims, and who painted its frescoes?

The Foujita chapel in Reims, completed in 1966, is an example of modern fresco art. The interior was decorated with religious scenes painted by Tsuguharu Foujita, a painter associated with the School of Paris.

Which famous Mexican artists are credited with renewing fresco painting in the 20th century and establishing Mexican Muralism?

The Mexican artists José Clemente Orozco, Fernando Leal, David Siqueiros, and Diego Rivera are credited with renewing fresco painting in the 20th century and establishing the art movement known as Mexican Muralism. Their work significantly contributed to Mexican fine arts and its international reputation.

What inspired the Mexican Muralism movement?

The Mexican Muralism movement was inspired by pre-Columbian Mexican artworks, including the true frescoes found at Teotihuacan. This historical artistic tradition influenced the modern muralists in their approach to large-scale public art.

What are some notable exceptions to the decline in fresco creation since the 1960s?

Despite a relative decline in fresco creation since the 1960s, notable exceptions include the work of American artists Brice Marden, David Novros, and James Hyde. These artists have continued to explore and innovate within the fresco technique.

How did Brice Marden's work relate to fresco techniques?

Brice Marden's monochrome works, first exhibited in the 1960s, were inspired by fresco painting. He drew inspiration from observing masons plastering walls, aiming to capture the imagistic effects associated with the fresco medium.

Describe David Novros's approach to fresco painting and his use of medieval techniques.

David Novros developed a 50-year practice centered on fresco techniques, utilizing medieval methods. He prepared full-scale cartoons and transferred them to wet plaster using the traditional pouncing technique. The surface unity of the fresco was crucial to him, as the pigment bonded with the drying plaster, becoming part of the wall.

What was significant about James Hyde's contemporary fresco work, particularly his use of Styrofoam?

James Hyde's contemporary fresco work is significant for its innovative application of the traditional technique onto unconventional supports, most notably large blocks of Styrofoam. This approach contrasted the permanence of classical fresco with the disposability of the Styrofoam, creating works described as suggestive shapes of the fleeting landscape of the present.

What environmental factors in Venice pose challenges for fresco conservation?

The unique environment of Venice, built on a lagoon, presents significant challenges for fresco conservation. Factors such as high humidity and the rising water levels, known as rising damp, cause moisture to seep into walls and damage frescoes.

What is 'rising damp,' and how does it affect frescoes?

Rising damp is a phenomenon occurring in Venice where lagoon water rises through the foundations of buildings and seeps up the walls. This moisture absorption can cause significant damage to frescoes, and the mold Aspergillus versicolor can grow on them after flooding, consuming nutrients from the artwork.

Outline the steps involved in the rescue and conservation of frescoes, as exemplified by the work at La Fenice opera house.

The conservation process for damaged frescoes, as seen at La Fenice opera house, involves several steps. These include applying a protective bandage, carefully removing damaged sections with brushes and vacuuming, using paper pulp compresses with ammonia solutions for less damaged areas, strengthening and reattaching sections, cleansing with resin compresses, and reinforcing the wall and pictorial layer with barium hydrate and epoxy resin injections for cracks.

Fresco Wiki: Fresco: The Art of Living Pigments on Plaster

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What is Fresco?

Definition: Painting on Fresh Plaster

Fresco, derived from the Italian adjective fresco meaning "fresh," is a mural painting technique executed upon freshly laid ("wet") lime plaster. Water serves as the medium for dry-powder pigments, allowing them to merge with the plaster. As the plaster sets, the painting becomes an integral part of the wall surface.

Buon Fresco vs. Fresco-secco

This technique is specifically known as buon fresco ("true fresco"). It is contrasted with fresco-secco or secco mural painting, which is applied to dried plaster. While the term "fresco" is often inaccurately used for any wall painting, buon fresco is distinguished by its chemical bonding process, making the artwork exceptionally durable.

Historical Significance

The fresco technique has been employed since antiquity and is most famously associated with Italian Renaissance painting. Its ability to create vibrant, lasting images directly on architectural surfaces has made it a pivotal medium in art history.

The Art and Science of Fresco

The Buon Fresco Process

Buon fresco involves applying pigment mixed with water onto a thin layer of wet lime plaster, known as the intonaco. The plaster's chemical composition eliminates the need for a binder, as the pigment is absorbed into the wet plaster. Upon drying, a chemical reaction (carbonatation) fixes the pigment permanently within the plaster matrix.

Chemical Foundation

The process relies on the hydration and subsequent carbonatation of lime:

Calcination: Limestone (CaCO₃) is heated in a kiln to produce quicklime (CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO₂).
Slaking: Quicklime (CaO) reacts with water (H₂O) to form slaked lime, or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂).
Setting: Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) in the wet plaster reacts with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) to form calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), binding the pigment and creating a durable surface.

The Challenge of Giornatas

Fresco painting demands precision due to the drying time of the plaster. Artists work on sections called giornatas ("day's work"), which must be completed within a specific timeframe before the plaster dries. Mistakes are difficult to correct and often require removal of the plaster or later additions a secco. The seams between giornatas can sometimes become visible over time.

Pigments and Techniques

Only pigments chemically stable in an alkaline environment can be used in buon fresco. Certain colors, particularly blues like azurite and lapis lazuli, were problematic and often applied a secco. Artists like Michelangelo and Raphael employed techniques such as indenting lines into wet plaster to enhance depth and define forms.

A Journey Through Time

Ancient Origins

The earliest known Egyptian fresco dates to circa 3500–3200 BC in Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis. While ancient Egyptians decorated tombs, these were typically a secco. True buon fresco emerged in Aegean civilizations during the Bronze Age, notably in Minoan art from Crete and Santorini (circa 1640–1600 BC).

Classical and Medieval Eras

Fresco painting flourished in ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, with notable examples found in Paestum, Etruscan tombs, and the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum. During the Middle Ages, it was widely used in Romanesque churches across Europe, including Catalonia and Denmark, and saw significant development in Byzantine art and Islamic traditions.

Renaissance and Beyond

The Italian Renaissance saw fresco reach its zenith with masterpieces by Giotto, Masaccio, Michelangelo (Sistine Chapel ceiling), and Raphael (Raphael Rooms). The technique continued through the Baroque period with artists like Tiepolo. Later, movements like Mexican Muralism revitalized fresco painting in the 20th century, with artists like Orozco and Rivera.

Contemporary Practice

While less common today, contemporary artists continue to explore fresco techniques, adapting them with modern materials and conceptual approaches. Artists like David Novros and James Hyde have engaged with the medium, highlighting its enduring relevance and potential for innovation.

Notable Masterpieces

Italian Renaissance

Sistine Chapel Ceiling by Michelangelo, Raphael Rooms by Raphael, and works in the Brancacci Chapel by Masaccio represent pinnacles of Renaissance fresco art, showcasing mastery of composition, anatomy, and narrative.

Indian Cave Paintings

The Ajanta Caves in India preserve some of the oldest known frescoes (circa 200 BC – 600 AD), depicting Jataka tales with remarkable detail and vibrant colors, demonstrating sophisticated artistic traditions.

Mexican Muralism

Artists like José Clemente Orozco, David Siqueiros, and Diego Rivera employed fresco for large-scale public murals in the 20th century, addressing social and political themes and reinterpreting the medium for a modern context.

Sigiriya Frescoes

Found in Sri Lanka, these frescoes from the reign of King Kashyapa I (477–495 AD) are unique examples of "fresco lustro," depicting celestial nymphs with a vibrancy that has captivated viewers for centuries.

Preservation Challenges

Environmental Factors

Fresco paintings are susceptible to environmental damage, particularly from humidity, water seepage (rising damp), and mold growth, as seen in Venice. These factors can degrade the plaster and pigment layers over time, necessitating careful conservation efforts.

Conservation Techniques

Restoration involves meticulous processes such as applying protective bandages, localized vacuuming, using chemical solutions to clean and strengthen the layers, and repairing cracks with specialized materials. The goal is to stabilize the artwork while preserving its historical integrity.

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References

All this section - Ugo Procacci, in Frescoes from Florence, pp. 15â25 1969, Arts Council, London.

Matthew L. Levy, "David Novro's Painted Places", in David Novros, exh. Cat. (Bielefeld: Kerber, 2014),50.

Ciacci, Leonardo., ed, La Fenice Reconstructed 1996–2003: a building site in the city, (Venezia: Marsilio, 2003),118.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Fresco Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not art historical advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional consultation with art historians, conservators, or art professionals. Always refer to primary sources and consult with qualified experts for specific inquiries regarding art history, conservation, or artistic techniques.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

Fresco: The Art of Living Pigments

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

What is Fresco? 🖌️

🧱 Definition: Painting on Fresh Plaster

⚖️ Buon Fresco vs. Fresco-secco

🏛️ Historical Significance

The Art and Science of Fresco 🔬

🧪 The Buon Fresco Process

⚛️ Chemical Foundation

⏱️ The Challenge of Giornatas

🎨 Pigments and Techniques

A Journey Through Time ⏳

🌍 Ancient Origins

🏛️ Classical and Medieval Eras

✨ Renaissance and Beyond

💡 Contemporary Practice

Notable Masterpieces 🖼️

🇮🇹 Italian Renaissance

🇮🇳 Indian Cave Paintings

🇲🇽 Mexican Muralism

🇱🇰 Sigiriya Frescoes

Preservation Challenges 🛡️

💧 Environmental Factors

🛠️ Conservation Techniques

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is Fresco?

Definition: Painting on Fresh Plaster

Buon Fresco vs. Fresco-secco

Historical Significance

The Art and Science of Fresco

The Buon Fresco Process

Chemical Foundation

The Challenge of Giornatas

Pigments and Techniques

A Journey Through Time

Ancient Origins

Classical and Medieval Eras

Renaissance and Beyond

Contemporary Practice

Notable Masterpieces

Italian Renaissance

Indian Cave Paintings

Mexican Muralism

Sigiriya Frescoes

Preservation Challenges

Environmental Factors

Conservation Techniques

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice