What historical circumstances in 17th-century Chile directly led to the practice of Mapuche slavery?

Mapuche slavery in 17th-century Chile was a direct consequence of the prolonged conflict known as the Arauco War. This conflict created conditions where the capture and enslavement of Mapuche individuals became prevalent.

Prior to the formalization of slavery, what system of involuntary servitude was initially imposed on the indigenous inhabitants of Chile by the Spanish conquistadors?

Initially, following the Spanish conquistadors' subjugation of the indigenous inhabitants of Chile, a form of involuntary servitude called encomienda was established. This system involved forced labor, which proved to be extremely harsh for the Mapuche people.

What was the primary consequence for Mapuche individuals subjected to the encomienda system in the 16th century?

The encomienda system imposed on the Mapuche in the 16th century was characterized by harsh conditions, leading to many Mapuche individuals dying while working in the Spanish gold mines. This highlights the severe impact of this early form of forced labor.

What was the Spanish Crown's policy regarding the enslavement of indigenous people prior to the events of 1608?

The Spanish Crown officially prohibited the slavery of indigenous people. However, this policy was challenged and eventually circumvented in the context of the ongoing conflicts in Chile.

What major Mapuche uprising and its consequences prompted Philip III of Spain to legalize slavery for captured Mapuche individuals?

The significant Mapuche uprising that occurred between 1598 and 1604, which resulted in the Destruction of the Seven Cities, prompted Philip III of Spain to take action. In 1608, he declared slavery legal for those Mapuche individuals captured during wartime.

On what religious and legal grounds did Philip III of Spain justify the legalization of slavery for Mapuche individuals captured in war in 1608?

The justification for legalizing Mapuche slavery rested on the religious and legal interpretation of the time. Rebelling Mapuche were considered Christian apostates, and according to church teachings of that era, apostates could be legally enslaved.

In what ways did the 1608 decree by Philip III legitimize and shape the existing treatment of captured Mapuche by Spanish settlers?

The 1608 decree formalized Mapuche slavery, which was already occurring in practice. It legally sanctioned the treatment of captured Mapuche as property that could be bought and sold among the Spanish population, thereby legitimizing existing abuses.

How did the official sanctioning of Mapuche slavery in 1608 influence the frequency and nature of slave raiding during the Arauco War?

The legalization of Mapuche slavery in 1608 significantly increased the practice of Spanish slave raiding during the Arauco War. This legal backing made such raids more common and systematic as a means to acquire enslaved labor.

To what regions were Mapuche slaves exported from Chile following the legalization of their enslavement?

Mapuche slaves were not confined to the immediate region of conflict; they were exported northwards to various Spanish settlements. These included destinations as far as La Serena in Chile and even Lima, the viceregal capital of Peru.

What role did Spanish slave raiding play as a catalyst for the Mapuche uprising of 1655?

Spanish slave raiding was a major contributing factor to the outbreak of the Mapuche uprising in 1655. The intensified efforts to capture and enslave Mapuche people fueled resentment and resistance, leading to widespread rebellion.

What role did Juan de Salazar play in the context of Mapuche slavery and the Army of Arauco?

Juan de Salazar, serving as a maestre de campo, utilized the Army of Arauco to capture Mapuche individuals with the explicit purpose of selling them into slavery. His actions were part of the Spanish efforts to exploit Mapuche labor through enslavement.

Describe the outcome of the significant Spanish slave hunting expedition against the Cunco people in 1654.

A large Spanish slave hunting expedition launched in 1654 against the Cunco people ended in complete disaster for the Spanish forces. They suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Río Bueno.

How was Governor Antonio de Acuña Cabrera's familial relationship potentially influence military campaigns and slave trade activities?

Governor Antonio de Acuña Cabrera y Bayona's familial connection, being the brother-in-law of Juan de Salazar, likely allowed Salazar to exert influence. This influence may have favored Salazar's military campaigns, which were heavily involved in the Mapuche slave trade, potentially benefiting both individuals.

What was the assessment of the Real Audiencia of Santiago concerning the underlying causes of the persistent conflict between Spaniards and the Mapuche in the 1650s?

The Real Audiencia of Santiago opined that the practice of enslaving Mapuche individuals was a significant reason for the constant state of war that existed between the Spaniards and the Mapuche people. They recognized slavery as a key driver of the ongoing conflict.

Did the practice of enslavement extend to the Mapuche capturing and trading individuals?

Yes, the practice of enslavement was not one-sided. The Mapuche also captured Spaniards, particularly women, and engaged in trading their ownership among themselves.

Following the Destruction of the Seven Cities, what fate befell the Spanish women taken captive by the Mapuche?

After the Destruction of the Seven Cities, Mapuche forces reportedly took approximately 500 Spanish women captive. These women were held as slaves by the Mapuche.

How was ownership and transfer of captive Spanish women managed within Mapuche society?

Ownership of captive Spanish women was not static; it was common for these women to change owners multiple times within Mapuche society, indicating a form of trade or transfer of enslaved individuals.

By what year was the practice of enslaving Mapuche individuals captured in war officially abolished?

The practice of enslaving Mapuche individuals who were "caught in war" was officially abolished in the year 1683, marking the end of a long period where this form of bondage was legally sanctioned.

According to historian Mario Góngora, what economic considerations were instrumental in the abolition of Mapuche slavery?

Historian Mario Góngora suggested in 1966 that economic factors were the primary drivers behind the abolition of Mapuche slavery. By 1683, free mestizo labor had become significantly cheaper than owning slaves, making the practice economically less viable for the Spanish settlers.

In what specific ways did Spanish settlers in the Chiloé Archipelago exploit the 1608 decree legalizing slavery?

Spanish settlers in the Chiloé Archipelago abused the 1608 decree that legalized slavery. They used it as a pretext to launch slave raids against indigenous groups, even those who had never been under Spanish rule or had not rebelled.

Which indigenous groups, not previously under Spanish control or in rebellion, became targets of slave raids originating from the Chiloé Archipelago due to the abuse of the 1608 decree?

The abuse of the 1608 decree by settlers in the Chiloé Archipelago led to slave raids against groups such as the Chono people of northwestern Patagonia. These groups had never been subjected to Spanish rule and had not engaged in rebellion.

How did the policies of Philip IV of Spain evolve concerning Mapuche slavery during his reign?

Philip IV of Spain initiated a shift in policy regarding Mapuche slavery. Later in his reign, he began to implement restrictions on the practice, moving away from the more permissive stance of his predecessor.

Following Philip IV's death, which royal figures spearheaded a significant anti-slavery campaign across the Spanish Empire?

After Philip IV's death, his wife Mariana of Austria, serving as regent, and their son Charles II of Spain took up the cause. They were instrumental in driving a broad anti-slavery campaign throughout the Spanish Empire.

What was the immediate impact and scope of Queen Mariana of Austria's 1667 directive regarding Indian slaves who had been captured in Chile?

In 1667, Queen Mariana of Austria issued an order to free all Indian slaves in Peru who had originally been captured in Chile. This directive aimed to liberate a specific group of enslaved indigenous people.

What was the reaction in Peru upon the announcement of Queen Mariana of Austria's 1667 order to free Indian slaves?

The announcement of Queen Mariana of Austria's 1667 order to free Indian slaves was met with significant disbelief and dismay among the population in Peru. Slave owners likely resisted the decree.

What measure did Queen Mariana of Austria implement in 1672 concerning Indian slaves within Mexico?

In 1672, Queen Mariana of Austria extended the anti-slavery measures by issuing an order that freed all Indian slaves residing in Mexico, regardless of where they were originally captured or enslaved.

What prompted Charles II of Spain to issue a general declaration freeing all indigenous slaves throughout Spanish America in 1679?

Charles II of Spain issued a general declaration freeing all indigenous slaves in Spanish America on June 12, 1679. This action was partly influenced by a plea received from the Pope, indicating broader religious and political pressure against slavery.

How was the 1679 declaration freeing indigenous slaves formally integrated into the legal framework of Spanish America?

The general declaration freeing all indigenous slaves in Spanish America, issued in 1679, was incorporated into a significant legal compilation. It was included in the Recopilación de las leyes de Indias, a codification of the laws governing Spanish America, in 1680.

Did Charles II's 1679 declaration freeing indigenous slaves apply universally, or were there specific groups excluded?

Charles II's 1679 declaration freeing indigenous slaves did not apply universally. The Carib people, often referred to as "cannibals," were explicitly excluded from this general emancipation.

What was the stance and actions of Governor Juan Enríquez of Chile in response to the royal decrees mandating the freedom of indigenous slaves?

Governor Juan Enríquez of Chile strongly resisted the royal decrees aimed at freeing indigenous slaves. He lodged protests directly with the king and deliberately did not publish the decrees within his jurisdiction, attempting to maintain the status quo of slavery.

Despite the royal anti-slavery campaign's success in curbing official involvement, what avenue for acquiring slaves persisted?

Although the royal anti-slavery campaign effectively ended the direct involvement and facilitation of slaving by government officials, the purchase of slaves remained possible. However, this was restricted to acquiring them from indigenous slavers.

Following the royal anti-slavery efforts, from which specific groups could Spaniards still legally purchase slaves?

After the royal anti-slavery campaign curtailed official involvement, Spaniards could still purchase slaves, but only from indigenous slaving groups. Notable examples include the Caribs of Venezuela and the Comanche people.

What was the initial form of involuntary servitude imposed by Spanish conquistadors in Chile before the widespread practice of slavery?

Before the widespread practice of formal slavery, Spanish conquistadors in Chile initially imposed a system of involuntary servitude known as the encomienda on the indigenous inhabitants.

What specific event marked the end of Spanish dominance over seven cities and influenced the legalization of Mapuche slavery?

The Mapuche uprising of 1598-1604, which culminated in the Destruction of the Seven Cities, was a pivotal event that led Philip III of Spain to legalize slavery for captured Mapuche individuals in 1608.

What was the geographical reach of the Mapuche slave trade, with slaves being exported to specific northern cities?

The Mapuche slave trade extended significantly beyond the immediate conflict zone. Enslaved Mapuche individuals were exported northwards as far as La Serena and Lima, indicating a broad regional market for enslaved labor.

What was the nature of the Spanish military force used by Juan de Salazar for capturing Mapuche individuals?

Juan de Salazar employed the Army of Arauco, a Spanish military force, to capture Mapuche individuals. These captured individuals were then sold into slavery, highlighting the military's role in the slave trade.

What was the significance of the Battle of Río Bueno in the context of Spanish slave raiding expeditions?

The Battle of Río Bueno marked a significant setback for Spanish slave raiding efforts. In 1654, a large expedition aimed at capturing Cunco people ended in a complete disaster for the Spanish forces at this battle.

What was the general scope of Charles II's 1679 declaration freeing indigenous slaves, and what was its subsequent codification?

Charles II's declaration on June 12, 1679, was of continental scope, aiming to free all indigenous slaves in Spanish America under any circumstance or pretext. This decree was later incorporated into the Recopilación de las leyes de Indias in 1680, a comprehensive codification of laws for Spanish America.

What were the stated reasons for excluding the Carib people from the general declaration freeing indigenous slaves?

The Carib people were excluded from the general declaration freeing indigenous slaves because they were described as attacking Spanish settlements and engaging in cannibalism ('eating human flesh'). This justification set them apart from other indigenous groups covered by the decree.

Mapuche Slavery Wiki: The Shadow of Conquest: Mapuche Slavery in Colonial Chile

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Initial Context: Servitude and Exploitation

The Arauco War's Shadow

The period of Mapuche slavery in 17th-century Chile was a direct and tragic consequence of the protracted conflict known as the Arauco War. Following the initial Spanish conquest and subjugation of the indigenous inhabitants of Chile, the system of encomienda was established. This was not outright slavery but a form of involuntary servitude that imposed harsh labor demands on the Mapuche people.

The Toll of Forced Labor

Under the encomienda system, many Mapuche were compelled to work in Spanish gold mines. The conditions were severe, leading to a significant loss of life during the 16th century. This period of intense forced labor set the stage for the more formalized system of slavery that would follow.

The Legalization of Formal Slavery

A Royal Decree

While the Spanish Crown initially prohibited the formal enslavement of indigenous peoples, a pivotal shift occurred following the major Mapuche uprising of 1598–1604, which culminated in the Destruction of the Seven Cities. In response, King Philip III of Spain issued a decree in 1608 that legalized slavery for Mapuche individuals captured during wartime.

Religious Justification

This decree was underpinned by a theological justification of the era: rebelling Mapuche were deemed Christian apostates. According to the prevailing church teachings, such individuals could be legitimately enslaved. This legal framework provided a veneer of legitimacy to practices that were already occurring.

Commodification and Trade

The 1608 legalization effectively formalized the existing practice of treating captured Mapuche as property. They were bought and sold among Spanish settlers, transforming human beings into commodities. This legal change significantly fueled Spanish slave raiding activities throughout the ongoing Arauco War.

The reach of this brutal trade extended far beyond the immediate conflict zones. Mapuche slaves were frequently exported northwards, reaching settlements as distant as La Serena in Chile and even the viceregal capital of Lima, Peru.

Intensified Raiding and Uprising

Fueling the 1655 Rebellion

Spanish slave raiding played a critical role in igniting the Mapuche uprising of 1655. This period saw increased Spanish aggression, particularly under the command of maestre de campo Juan de Salazar. Salazar utilized the Army of Arauco to conduct extensive slave hunting expeditions, capturing Mapuche individuals for sale.

Military Setbacks and Persistence

Despite significant setbacks, such as the disastrous Battle of Río Bueno in 1654, the Spanish continued their slave hunting operations. Salazar, who reportedly profited immensely from the slave trade, was able to exert influence through his brother-in-law, Governor Antonio de Acuña Cabrera, to further his military campaigns aimed at capturing more people.

Juan de Salazar's dual role as a military commander and a beneficiary of the slave trade created a conflict of interest. His actions, supported by Governor Acuña Cabrera, directly contributed to the escalating tensions and the outbreak of the 1655 uprising. The Real Audiencia of Santiago itself recognized that the constant state of war between Spaniards and Mapuche was significantly driven by the practice of slavery.

Reciprocal Captivity and Trade

The Mapuche Counterpart

The practice of captivity was not solely a Spanish endeavor. The Mapuche people also captured Spaniards, particularly women, during conflicts. These captives were often held and traded among different Mapuche groups, becoming a form of internal currency or status symbol.

Spanish Women as Captives

Following the devastating Destruction of the Seven Cities, reports indicate that Mapuche forces took approximately 500 Spanish women captive. These women were held in various forms of servitude, and it was not uncommon for their ownership to change hands multiple times within Mapuche society.

The Royal Crusade Against Slavery

Shifting Royal Policy

The tide began to turn against the legalization of Mapuche slavery during the reign of Philip IV of Spain. Although he died before fully enacting reforms, his wife, Mariana of Austria, serving as regent, and their son Charles II, initiated a broader campaign against slavery across the Spanish Empire.

Imperial Decrees of Liberation

This anti-slavery crusade led to significant royal decrees aimed at freeing indigenous slaves. In 1667, Mariana of Austria ordered the liberation of all Chilean Indians held as slaves in Peru, a directive met with considerable resistance. Similar orders followed, freeing Indian slaves in Mexico (1672) and, after papal intervention, those in the southern Andes. In 1679, Charles II issued a sweeping declaration freeing all indigenous slaves throughout Spanish America, which was incorporated into the 1680 Recopilación de las leyes de Indias.

The implementation of these decrees faced strong opposition from colonial officials. Governor Juan Enríquez of Chile, for instance, actively resisted the orders, protesting to the king and refusing to publish the decrees that would free indigenous slaves. Despite this resistance, the royal campaign significantly curtailed the official facilitation of slaving by Spaniards.

Exceptions and Continued Trade

While the royal decrees aimed for broad emancipation, certain groups were explicitly excluded, notably the Carib people, who were considered 'cannibals'. Furthermore, while government officials were increasingly prohibited from direct involvement in slave raiding, the purchase of slaves from indigenous slavers, such as the Caribs or the Comanche, remained possible in some regions.

Formal Abolition and Economic Realities

The End of Legal Mapuche Slavery

By 1683, following decades of legal challenges and royal pressure, slavery specifically for Mapuche individuals "caught in war" was formally abolished. This marked the official end of a brutal chapter in colonial Chilean history.

Economic Factors at Play

Historian Mario Góngora suggested in 1966 that economic considerations were a significant driver behind the abolition. By the late 17th century, the availability of free mestizo labor had become substantially cheaper than the ownership of enslaved individuals. This economic shift likely made the continuation of formal Mapuche slavery less viable for Spanish colonists.

Abuse in Chiloé

The 1608 decree, intended for those captured in war, was also notoriously abused by Spanish settlers in the Chiloé Archipelago. They used it to launch slave raids against groups like the Chono people of northwestern Patagonia, who had never been under Spanish rule and had not engaged in rebellion. This highlights the pervasive exploitation that occurred under the guise of legal justification.

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References

When the viceroy of Peru learned of this order, he could not hide his disbelief. ResÃ©ndez, AndrÃ©s. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 136). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.

ResÃ©ndez, AndrÃ©s. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 142-144). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.

ResÃ©ndez, AndrÃ©s. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 177). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Mapuche slavery Wikipedia page

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This page has been generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is derived from a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date. Historical interpretations can evolve, and this AI-generated content reflects the information available at the time of its creation.

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The Shadow of Conquest

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Initial Context: Servitude and Exploitation ⛓️

⚔️ The Arauco War's Shadow

⛏️ The Toll of Forced Labor

The Legalization of Formal Slavery ⚖️

📜 A Royal Decree

⛪ Religious Justification

💰 Commodification and Trade

Intensified Raiding and Uprising 🔥

💥 Fueling the 1655 Rebellion

📉 Military Setbacks and Persistence

Reciprocal Captivity and Trade 💔

🔄 The Mapuche Counterpart

👩‍ captured Spanish Women as Captives

The Royal Crusade Against Slavery 🕊️

👑 Shifting Royal Policy

🌍 Imperial Decrees of Liberation

🚫 Exceptions and Continued Trade

Formal Abolition and Economic Realities ✅

📅 The End of Legal Mapuche Slavery

💲 Economic Factors at Play

⚠️ Abuse in Chiloé

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Initial Context: Servitude and Exploitation

The Arauco War's Shadow

The Toll of Forced Labor

The Legalization of Formal Slavery

A Royal Decree

Religious Justification

Commodification and Trade

Intensified Raiding and Uprising

Fueling the 1655 Rebellion

Military Setbacks and Persistence

Reciprocal Captivity and Trade

The Mapuche Counterpart

Spanish Women as Captives

The Royal Crusade Against Slavery

Shifting Royal Policy

Imperial Decrees of Liberation

Exceptions and Continued Trade

Formal Abolition and Economic Realities

The End of Legal Mapuche Slavery

Economic Factors at Play

Abuse in Chiloé

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice