When did the Spanish colonization of the Americas begin, and on which Caribbean island was the first permanent settlement established?

The Spanish colonization of the Americas began in 1493 on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, following Christopher Columbus's initial voyage in 1492.

What was the primary cause for the drastic decline in the indigenous population of the Americas after the arrival of Europeans?

The primary cause for the significant decline in the indigenous population, estimated at 80% within the first century and a half after Columbus's voyages, was the spread of infectious diseases.

Which European monarchs initiated the expansion of Spanish territory into the Americas, and what treaty divided newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal?

Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon oversaw the initial expansion. The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494, formally divided the newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal.

What were the three main motivations driving Spanish expansion in the Americas, often summarized by the phrase 'gold, glory, God'?

The motivations for Spanish expansion were the pursuit of material wealth (gold), the enhancement of the conquerors' and crown's prestige (glory), and the religious mission to spread Christianity (God).

How did the Spanish conquistadors typically fund their expeditions, and what was the role of the expedition leader?

Spanish expeditions, known as *entradas*, were usually funded by the leader and participants, who invested their own resources with the expectation of profit. The leader, often called an *adelantado*, was a prominent figure who secured royal authorization and attracted investors.

Who were the two most famous Spanish conquistadors, and which major indigenous empires did they conquer?

Hernán Cortés led the conquest of the Aztec Empire, and Francisco Pizarro led the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru.

What was the 'Black Legend', and how did Bartolomé de las Casas contribute to it?

The 'Black Legend' refers to anti-Spanish writings that highlighted the cruelty and exploitation during the colonization of the Americas. Bartolomé de las Casas's 1542 publication, *A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies*, was a foundational text for this narrative.

Describe the *encomienda* system and its initial application in the Caribbean.

The *encomienda* system granted Spanish settlers control over specific indigenous communities, including their labor and tribute. In the Caribbean, it was used to compel the Taíno population to extract gold and provide labor.

What was the significance of the *Inter caetera* papal decree?

Issued by Pope Alexander VI in 1493, the *Inter caetera* decree divided the newly discovered lands in the Western Hemisphere between Spain and Portugal, contingent upon their efforts to spread Christianity.

How did the Spanish leverage indigenous rivalries during their conquests, using the Aztec Empire as an example?

The Spanish often exploited existing conflicts between indigenous groups. For instance, during the conquest of the Aztec Empire, they formed crucial alliances with groups like the Tlaxcalans, who sought to overthrow Aztec rule.

What internal conflict within the Inca Empire did Francisco Pizarro and his forces exploit?

The Spanish exploited the civil war between the Inca brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar, as well as the resentment of indigenous nations that had been subjugated by the Incas.

What was the primary reason for the Spanish settlement of islands like Cubagua and Margarita in Venezuela?

The Spanish settled Cubagua and Margarita primarily to exploit the rich pearl beds found in those locations.

What unique colonial arrangement did Charles I of Spain make with the German Welser banking family regarding Venezuela?

Charles I granted the Welser family the rights to colonize and exploit western Venezuela in 1528 as a means to repay debts, leading to the establishment of Klein-Venedig.

Why was the region of Argentina, particularly Buenos Aires, initially less appealing to Spanish conquerors compared to Mexico or Peru?

Argentina was less appealing due to its sparse indigenous population and the lack of readily available precious metals or other highly valuable resources for extraction, unlike the more densely populated and resource-rich areas of Mexico and Peru.

Which Spanish explorer is credited with the first European sighting of Florida, and in what year did this occur?

Juan Ponce de León is credited with the first European sighting of Florida in 1513.

What was the significance of the settlement of St. Augustine, Florida, established in 1565?

The establishment of St. Augustine in 1565 marked the founding of arguably the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement in what is now the United States.

What were the 'Laws of Burgos' (1512-1513), and what was their intended purpose?

The Laws of Burgos were the first codified laws for Spanish settlers in the Americas, intended to regulate the *encomienda* system by forbidding the maltreatment of indigenous peoples and endorsing their resettlement and conversion to Catholicism.

What was the Valladolid debate, and why is it considered a significant event in the history of human rights?

The Valladolid debate (1550-1551) was a formal discussion in Spain concerning the justification of colonization and the rights and treatment of indigenous peoples, considered a pivotal moment in the early development of human rights discourse.

How did the Spanish Empire incorporate existing indigenous political and economic structures into its colonial administration?

The Spanish utilized existing indigenous structures by recognizing local elites, allowing them intermediary roles, and adapting indigenous systems of tribute and labor service to facilitate the extraction of wealth and governance.

What were the two primary factors influencing the density of Spanish settlement in different regions of the Americas?

The density of Spanish settlement was influenced by the presence of dense, organized indigenous populations for labor and the availability of exploitable resources, particularly precious metals like silver and gold.

What was the *mita* system, and how was it adapted by the Spanish in Peru for silver mining?

The *mita* was a traditional indigenous system of rotational labor. In Peru, the Spanish revived and adapted it to provide a labor force for the silver mines, notably at Potosí.

What was the Columbian Exchange, and what was its most significant impact on the indigenous populations of the Americas?

The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between the Old World and the Americas. Its most significant impact on indigenous populations was the introduction of infectious diseases, which led to catastrophic population declines.

What role did the *Patronato real* play in the relationship between the Spanish Crown and the Catholic Church in the Americas?

The *Patronato real*, granted in 1508, gave the Spanish monarch significant power over the Catholic Church in the Americas, including the authority to appoint bishops and other clergy, and to establish diocesan boundaries.

What were the *Audiencias*, and what was their function as a check on viceregal power?

The *Audiencias* were high courts that served as the highest judicial bodies. They also had executive and legislative powers and could communicate directly with the Council of the Indies and the King, acting as a counterweight to the authority of viceroys.

What was the purpose of the *presidios* established by the Spanish on the frontiers of their empire?

Presidios were military forts or garrisons established to protect Spanish settlers from indigenous attacks and to secure Spanish claims in frontier regions.

What was cochineal, and why did it become a valuable export product for Spanish America?

Cochineal was a vibrant, color-fast red dye derived from dried insects found on cacti. It became a highly valuable export due to its quality and demand in Europe, ranking second only to silver in economic importance.

What event in Europe in the early 19th century contributed to the outbreak of the Spanish American wars of independence?

The Napoleonic invasion of Spain and the subsequent political instability created an opportunity for Spanish American colonies to declare independence, influenced by Enlightenment ideals and revolutionary movements elsewhere.

What was the significance of the *República de Indios* and the *República de Españoles* in Spanish colonial society?

These were legal classifications that separated indigenous communities (*República de Indios*) from Spaniards and other non-indigenous populations (*República de Españoles*), establishing distinct social and administrative structures within the empire.

Who were the *letrados*, and what role did they play in the administration of the Spanish Empire?

*Letrados* were university-trained lawyers who served as crucial bureaucrats and administrators within the Spanish Empire, filling key positions in both Spain and its overseas territories.

What was the primary economic activity in the early Spanish settlements of the Caribbean after the initial disappointment with gold?

Following the decline in gold extraction and the indigenous labor force, the primary economic activity that sustained the early Caribbean settlements became cane sugar cultivation, which required a significant labor force, leading to the importation of enslaved Africans.

What was the role of the *Cabildo* in Spanish colonial towns?

The *Cabildo*, or town council, was composed of prominent local residents (*vecinos*) and was responsible for municipal governance, including land distribution, local taxes, public order, and overseeing public works and health.

How did the Spanish Crown attempt to control the power of the conquistadors and early settlers, particularly concerning the indigenous populations?

The Crown enacted laws such as the Laws of Burgos (1512-1513) and the more stringent New Laws (1542) to limit the exploitation of indigenous labor, restrict the inheritance of *encomiendas*, and prevent the formation of an independent aristocracy.

What was the primary function of the *Casa de Contratación* established in Seville in 1503?

The *Casa de Contratación* was established to control and regulate all trade and emigration between Spain and the Americas, manage finances related to overseas ventures, and oversee the judicial aspects of this commerce.

What was the significance of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in terms of the scale of wealth discovered?

The conquest of the Aztec Empire marked the first time Spaniards found wealth on the scale they had long hoped for, primarily through the extraction of gold and silver.

What was the 'spiritual conquest' in the context of Spanish colonization?

The 'spiritual conquest' refers to the process of evangelizing indigenous populations and converting them to Catholicism, which the Spanish used as a key justification for their conquest and rule over the Americas.

What role did indigenous elites play in the Spanish colonial administration after the conquest of empires like the Aztec and Inca?

Indigenous elites often played an intermediary role, maintaining their standing and titles, and facilitating the Spanish administration's access to tribute and labor from the common indigenous population.

What were the *Provincias Internas*, and what geographical area did they generally encompass?

The *Provincias Internas* were administrative districts established by Spain in the northern frontier regions of New Spain, generally encompassing territories that are now part of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico.

What was the *Patronato real*, and how did it affect the relationship between the Spanish Crown and the Catholic Church?

The *Patronato real* was a privilege granted by the Pope to the Spanish monarchy, giving it extensive control over the Catholic Church in the Americas, including the appointment of clergy and the establishment of church structures, effectively making the King the head of both civil and religious hierarchies.

What was the primary purpose of the *presidios* established by the Spanish on the frontiers?

Presidios were military forts designed to protect Spanish settlers and colonial interests from indigenous attacks and to maintain Spanish control in frontier territories.

What was the significance of the *Requerimiento* in the Spanish conquest?

The *Requerimiento* was a declaration read to indigenous peoples, informing them of Spanish authority and the tenets of Catholicism, and demanding their peaceful submission. Failure to comply justified Spanish conquest and enslavement.

What impact did the Bourbon Reforms have on the administrative structure of the Spanish Empire in the 18th century?

The Bourbon Reforms aimed to centralize royal control, leading to significant administrative changes such as reorganizing viceroyalties, strengthening the military, and diminishing the power of local elites and the Church.

What was the role of the *Audiencias* in the Spanish colonial administrative system?

The *Audiencias* served as high courts of justice and also possessed executive and legislative functions, acting as a crucial administrative institution and a check on the power of viceroys.

What was the primary economic driver of the Spanish colonial economy, particularly after the initial focus on gold?

The discovery and extraction of silver became the primary economic driver, fueling the colonial economy, generating significant revenue for the Spanish Crown, and impacting the global economy.

What were the *Libertadores*, and what role did they play in the 19th century?

The *Libertadores* were the key leaders, predominantly *criollos*, of the Spanish American wars of independence, who fought to achieve self-governance and establish independent nations free from Spanish rule.

What was the significance of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in terms of the alliances formed?

The conquest of the Aztec Empire was significantly aided by the Spaniards' ability to forge alliances with indigenous groups, such as the Tlaxcalans, who were rivals of the Aztecs and sought to leverage the Spanish presence for their own goals.

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Imperial Expansion

Foundations of Empire

The Spanish colonization of the Americas commenced in 1493, following Christopher Columbus's initial voyage under the patronage of Queen Isabella I of Castile. This marked the beginning of Spain's extensive overseas dominion, which lasted until the loss of its final territories in 1898. The Spanish Crown viewed the indigenous populations as a vital economic resource and the claimed territories as sources of immense wealth.

Religious Imperative

Religion played a pivotal role in the Spanish conquest and administration of the Americas. The evangelization of indigenous peoples into the Catholic Church, whether through peaceful means or coercion, was a central justification for expansion. The Crown established comprehensive civil and religious structures to govern these vast new territories.

Resource-Driven Settlement

Spanish settlement patterns were significantly influenced by the presence of dense indigenous populations and the availability of valuable resources for extraction. Areas rich in precious metals, particularly silver, became focal points for Spanish endeavors, shaping the economic and social landscape of the colonies.

Principles of Expansion

Gold, Glory, God

Spanish expansion was often characterized by the pursuit of material wealth ("gold"), enhancement of personal and royal prestige ("glory"), and the propagation of Christianity ("God"). Expeditions, known as entradas, required royal authorization, with leaders and participants often financing these ventures at their own risk, expecting substantial rewards upon success.

Alliances and Tactics

Conquistadors frequently leveraged existing indigenous rivalries to forge alliances, a strategy notably employed during the conquest of the Aztec Empire with groups like the Tlaxcala. These alliances were crucial for Spanish success, providing manpower and local knowledge, and often resulted in lasting political legacies for the indigenous allies.

Crown Authority and Contracts

The Spanish monarchy asserted its authority through formal contracts, or capitulaciones, which outlined the terms for expeditions. Leaders, or adelantados, were granted licenses to explore and conquer, undertaking the financial burden in exchange for significant rewards and governance rights. This system underscored the Crown's ultimate sovereignty.

Caribbean Foundations

Early Settlements

Initial Spanish settlements in the Caribbean, such as La Isabela on Hispaniola, established patterns that would endure throughout the empire. The Spanish initially misidentified the region as the "Indies," leading to the term "Indians" for the indigenous inhabitants. The Crown financed Columbus's early voyages, setting a precedent for royal involvement.

Demographic Catastrophe

The indigenous populations of the Caribbean, particularly the Taíno, experienced a devastating decline due to infectious diseases, overwork, and the disruption of their societal structures. The Spanish reliance on indigenous labor through the encomienda system, despite royal prohibitions on formal slavery, contributed significantly to this demographic collapse.

Voices of Dissent

Figures like Dominican friar Antonio de Montesinos denounced Spanish cruelty in 1511. Bartolomé de las Casas, documenting these abuses in A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, became a prominent advocate for indigenous rights, influencing policies like the New Laws of 1542 aimed at curbing settler exploitation.

Conquest of Mexico

Aztec Empire Fall

Hernán Cortés's conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521) marked a pivotal moment, yielding the substantial wealth initially sought by the Spanish. This campaign involved significant indigenous alliances, notably with Tlaxcala, who sought to overthrow Aztec dominance. Indigenous accounts also provide crucial perspectives on this period.

Rebuilding and Administration

Following the conquest, Cortés founded the port of Veracruz and subsequently established Mexico City on the ruins of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. This replicated existing indigenous ceremonial centers with Spanish administrative structures, integrating them into the colonial framework.

Silver and Expansion

The discovery of silver deposits in regions like Zacatecas and Guanajuato became central to Mexico's colonial economy. These mining hubs, often located outside traditional Mesoamerican settlement zones, required the recruitment of labor and the development of sophisticated refining processes, such as the patio process utilizing mercury.

Conquest of Peru

Inca Empire Subjugation

In 1532, Francisco Pizarro's forces, aided by indigenous allies, captured the Inca emperor Atahualpa at the Battle of Cajamarca. This initiated a protracted campaign to subdue the vast Inca Empire, exploiting internal divisions from a recent civil war between Atahualpa and Huáscar, and leveraging the enmity of subjugated indigenous nations.

Silver and the Mita System

The discovery of the Cerro Rico mountain in Potosí yielded immense silver wealth. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo adapted the indigenous mita system, a form of rotational labor, to supply workers for the silver mines. This system, along with the local mercury supply from Huancavelica, fueled the colonial economy but caused significant harm to the indigenous workforce.

Viceroyalty and Capital

The Viceroyalty of Peru was established in 1542. Unlike Mexico City, the Spanish capital Lima was founded near the Pacific coast, rather than at the high-altitude Inca center of Cuzco. The last Inca stronghold fell in 1572, marking the consolidation of Spanish rule over the Andean region.

Chilean Frontier

Mapuche Resistance

Exploration from Peru led to the founding of Santiago in 1541 by Pedro de Valdivia. However, Spanish expansion southward was significantly challenged by the fierce resistance of the Mapuche people. The Mapuche successfully reversed Spanish colonization efforts, leading to the establishment of a long-standing frontier.

Frontier Dynamics

The Mapuche victory in the Destruction of the Seven Cities (1599–1604) established a frontier known as "La Frontera." This region, characterized by indigenous resistance, limited exploitable resources, and challenging geography, made Chile a peripheral area of Spanish America, hemmed in by the Andes and the Pacific.

New Granada

Highland Conquest

Between 1537 and 1543, Spanish expeditions entered highland Colombia, conquering the Muisca Confederation and establishing the New Kingdom of Granada. Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led this effort, which eventually became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1739.

Administrative Evolution

Initially organized as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru, the region saw the establishment of the Audiencia of Bogotá in 1549. It later transitioned into the Viceroyalty of New Granada, ultimately ceasing to exist as a distinct entity with the formation of Gran Colombia in 1819.

Venezuela's Unique Path

German Colonization

Western Venezuela followed an atypical path when Charles I granted colonization rights to the German Welser banking family in 1528. Seeking to satisfy debts, the Welsers established Klein-Venedig, founding towns like Coro and Maracaibo. This German colonial episode ended in 1545 when Charles revoked the grant.

Pearl Fisheries

Spaniards also settled coastal islands like Cubagua and Margarita to exploit pearl fisheries. While few permanent settlements were established on the mainland initially, these ventures highlight the diverse economic motivations driving early Spanish presence.

Río de la Plata & Paraguay

Sparse Settlement

Argentina's colonization was less intense due to sparse indigenous populations and a lack of readily exploitable precious metals. The initial settlement of Buenos Aires in 1535–1536 failed and was abandoned. The Spanish base shifted inland to Asunción, Paraguay.

Riverine Expansion

A second, permanent settlement of Buenos Aires was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Exploration from Peru also led to the foundation of Tucumán in what is now northwest Argentina.

Spanish Claims in the US

Early Exploration

Spain claimed and explored vast territories within the modern-day United States, including Florida, the Southwest, and parts of the Southeast. Juan Ponce de León sighted Florida in 1513, and early settlement attempts, such as San Miguel de Gualdape (1526) and Pensacola (1559), predated later European efforts.

St. Augustine and New Mexico

The establishment of St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565 marked one of the earliest continuously inhabited European settlements in the US. Permanent Spanish settlements were later founded in New Mexico, beginning in 1598, with Santa Fe established in 1610.

Frontier Institutions

Presidios

In frontier regions with less dense indigenous populations, Spain established presidios (military forts) for protection. These garrisons, often housing salaried soldiers, served as defensive outposts and centers for trade, guarding routes and providing security against indigenous resistance and rival European powers.

Missions

Religious missions, primarily managed by Franciscan and Jesuit orders, were established to convert indigenous populations. Missionaries acted as diplomatic agents and educators, playing a crucial role in incorporating frontier populations into the Spanish colonial system and defending against nomadic tribes and foreign encroachment.

Catholic Church Organization

Evangelization Efforts

The evangelization of indigenous peoples was a primary justification for Spanish colonization. Religious orders, particularly Franciscans and Dominicans, were instrumental in early conversion efforts, establishing networks of parishes and missions. The Crown's authority, granted by the Patronato real, extended to appointing clergy and defining diocesan boundaries.

Hierarchy and Control

The establishment of a diocesan clergy hierarchy, with archbishops and bishops appointed by the Crown, solidified royal control over the religious sphere. This structure paralleled civil governance, with the monarch acting as the ultimate head of both church and state in the Americas.

Inquisition

While formal inquisitorial powers were initially vested in bishops, the establishment of the Holy Office of the Inquisition in 1571 largely excluded indigenous peoples due to their status as recent converts. This institution aimed to maintain religious orthodoxy among the Spanish population and other European settlers.

Society and Demographics

Indigenous Population Decline

The arrival of Europeans precipitated a catastrophic decline in indigenous populations across the Americas, primarily due to the introduction of infectious diseases like smallpox and measles. This demographic collapse profoundly impacted the Spanish colonial economy, which relied heavily on indigenous labor.

Casta System

Spanish America developed a complex social hierarchy based on race and origin, known as the castas. This system categorized individuals based on their ancestry, including Spaniards (peninsulares and criollos), indigenous peoples (indios), Africans (negros), and various mixed-race classifications like mestizos and mulattos.

Population Composition

The largest demographic group remained indigenous peoples. Spanish immigration initially comprised more men than women, leading to significant intermixing. Enslaved Africans were imported, particularly to the Caribbean, though free Black and mixed-race populations often outnumbered enslaved individuals.

Colonial Economy

Silver as the Engine

Silver mining, particularly from the Cerro Rico in Potosí (Peru) and mines in Zacatecas and Guanajuato (Mexico), became the primary driver of the Spanish colonial economy. This wealth fueled Spain's imperial ambitions and significantly impacted global trade dynamics.

Tribute and Labor

In regions with dense indigenous populations, the Spanish utilized existing systems of tribute and labor, such as the encomienda and the adapted mita system. These mechanisms extracted wealth through goods and mandatory labor, primarily from indigenous commoners.

Sugar and Slavery

The cultivation of sugar cane became a crucial economic activity in the Caribbean and coastal regions. Due to the decimation of indigenous labor, enslaved Africans were imported to meet the demand for plantation labor, establishing the foundation for plantation economies.

Civil Governance

Royal Authority

The Spanish Crown established a complex, hierarchical bureaucracy to govern its overseas territories. Key institutions included the Council of the Indies, viceroyalties, and audiencias (high courts), designed to assert royal control and manage diverse populations and vast territories.

Audiencias and Corregimientos

Audiencias served as the highest judicial authorities and also possessed executive and legislative functions, acting as a counterweight to viceregal power. Below them, corregimientos and alcaldías mayores managed regional districts, overseeing tribute collection and labor regulation, particularly concerning indigenous populations.

Cabildos and Frontier

Cabildos (town councils) governed Spanish cities and towns, typically composed of local elites. On the frontiers, presidios (military forts) and missions were established to provide security and facilitate conversion, reflecting the Crown's efforts to expand and consolidate its dominion.

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References

Florida was supposedly named because it was spotted on Easter, or the Festival of Flowers as it was commonly called in Spain.

most notoriously, the Acoma Massacre

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[4] 1492: The Conquest of Paradise.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Spanish colonization of the Americas Wikipedia page

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The Spanish Reach

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Imperial Expansion 👑

🌍 Foundations of Empire

✝️ Religious Imperative

💰 Resource-Driven Settlement

Principles of Expansion 📜

⚔️ Gold, Glory, God

🤝 Alliances and Tactics

⚖️ Crown Authority and Contracts

Caribbean Foundations 🏝️

🧭 Early Settlements

📉 Demographic Catastrophe

🗣️ Voices of Dissent

Conquest of Mexico 🇲🇽

⚔️ Aztec Empire Fall

🏛️ Rebuilding and Administration

⛏️ Silver and Expansion

Conquest of Peru 🇵🇪

👑 Inca Empire Subjugation

⛰️ Silver and the Mita System

🏛️ Viceroyalty and Capital

Chilean Frontier 🇨🇱

⚔️ Mapuche Resistance

🏞️ Frontier Dynamics

New Granada 🇨🇴

🗺️ Highland Conquest

🏛️ Administrative Evolution

Venezuela's Unique Path 🇻🇪

🇩🇪 German Colonization

💎 Pearl Fisheries

Río de la Plata & Paraguay 🇦🇷 🇵🇾

📉 Sparse Settlement

🚢 Riverine Expansion

Spanish Claims in the US 🇺🇸

🧭 Early Exploration

🏛️ St. Augustine and New Mexico

Frontier Institutions 🛡️

⚔️ Presidios

⛪ Missions

Catholic Church Organization ⛪

✝️ Evangelization Efforts

⚖️ Hierarchy and Control

🔥 Inquisition

Society and Demographics 👥

📉 Indigenous Population Decline

🧬 Casta System

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Population Composition

Colonial Economy 💰

⛏️ Silver as the Engine

🌱 Tribute and Labor

🍬 Sugar and Slavery

Civil Governance 🏛️

👑 Royal Authority

⚖️ Audiencias and Corregimientos

🏘️ Cabildos and Frontier

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

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Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Imperial Expansion

Foundations of Empire

Religious Imperative

Resource-Driven Settlement

Principles of Expansion

Gold, Glory, God

Alliances and Tactics

Crown Authority and Contracts

Caribbean Foundations

Early Settlements

Demographic Catastrophe

Voices of Dissent

Conquest of Mexico

Aztec Empire Fall

Rebuilding and Administration

Silver and Expansion

Conquest of Peru

Inca Empire Subjugation

Silver and the Mita System

Viceroyalty and Capital

Chilean Frontier

Mapuche Resistance

Frontier Dynamics

New Granada

Highland Conquest

Administrative Evolution

Venezuela's Unique Path

German Colonization

Pearl Fisheries

Río de la Plata & Paraguay

Sparse Settlement

Riverine Expansion

Spanish Claims in the US

Early Exploration

St. Augustine and New Mexico

Frontier Institutions

Presidios

Missions

Catholic Church Organization

Evangelization Efforts

Hierarchy and Control

Inquisition

Society and Demographics

Indigenous Population Decline

Casta System

Population Composition

Colonial Economy

Silver as the Engine

Tribute and Labor

Sugar and Slavery

Civil Governance

Royal Authority

Audiencias and Corregimientos

Cabildos and Frontier

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice