What is the fundamental definition of tragedy as a genre of drama?

Tragedy is defined as a genre of drama centered on human suffering, particularly the sorrowful or terrible events that befall the main characters. The traditional aim of tragedy is to evoke catharsis, a paradoxical feeling of pain that awakens pleasure in the audience.

How has tragedy historically contributed to the self-definition of Western civilization?

The tradition of tragedy, originating in ancient Greece and evolving through various periods and cultures, has played a significant role in shaping Western civilization's identity. It has served as a powerful medium for cultural expression, historical continuity, and the exploration of shared human experiences.

Which ancient Greek playwrights' works are among the earliest surviving examples of tragedy?

The earliest surviving examples of tragedy come from ancient Greece, with works by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. While many plays from this era are lost, the surviving texts provide foundational examples of the genre.

What is the suspected origin of the word 'tragedy'?

The word 'tragedy' is believed to derive from the Ancient Greek word 'tragōidia,' meaning 'goat song.' This term is thought to originate from ancient practices where a goat was either a prize in a competition or was ritually sacrificed by a chorus.

According to Aristotle's Poetics, how did tragedy develop as an art form?

Aristotle suggested in his Poetics that tragedy evolved from the improvisations of the leaders of choral dithyrambs, which were hymns sung and danced in praise of Dionysus. Over time, these improvisations developed into the distinct dramatic form of tragedy.

What is Aristotle's scholastic definition of tragedy?

Aristotle defined tragedy as an enactment of a significant and complete deed, of a certain magnitude, using language enriched with ornaments. It is performed rather than recited, and it effects a relief or catharsis of emotions like pity and fear in the audience.

What alternative theory exists regarding the etymology of 'tragedy'?

An alternative etymological theory, proposed by Athenaeus of Naucratis, suggests that the word 'tragedy' originated from 'trygodia,' combining 'trygos' (grape harvest) and 'ode' (song). This theory posits that the genre's origins are linked to events celebrated during the grape harvest.

What were the key characteristics of Athenian tragedy?

Athenian tragedy was a form of dance-drama performed at annual state religious festivals honoring Dionysus. It typically involved a contest between three playwrights, each presenting a tetralogy (three tragedies and a satyr play). Performances were in open-air theaters, actors were male and wore masks, and the chorus sang and danced.

What is the earliest surviving Greek tragedy, and who wrote it?

The earliest surviving Greek tragedy is 'The Persians,' written by Aeschylus. This play is considered unique among extant ancient dramas.

What was a satyr play in the context of ancient Greek theatre?

A satyr play was a comic, often burlesque, piece that followed a trilogy of tragedies presented by a playwright at the Dionysian festivals. It featured a chorus of satyrs and provided a lighter, often bawdy, conclusion to the dramatic offerings.

What theatrical devices were used in ancient Greek tragedy, and what is the origin of 'deus ex machina'?

Ancient Greek tragedies utilized devices like the 'ekkyklema,' a platform to display the results of off-stage actions, and the 'mechane,' a crane used to lower actors playing gods onto the stage. The 'mechane' is the origin of the phrase 'deus ex machina,' referring to a sudden, unexpected intervention that resolves the plot.

How did Roman tragedy develop and what are its key characteristics?

Roman tragedy emerged after Rome's expansion into Greek territories, with playwrights like Livius Andronicus and Gnaeus Naevius adapting Greek works. The tragedies of Seneca, which survive, are known for their declamatory style, focus on revenge, supernatural elements, and detailed descriptions of violence, often intended for recitation rather than full performance.

What types of tragedies are attributed to Seneca?

Seneca's surviving tragedies are classified as 'fabula crepidata,' meaning they were adaptations of Greek originals. An example is his 'Phaedra,' based on Euripides' 'Hippolytus.' The 'fabula praetexta,' a tragedy based on Roman subjects, is represented by 'Octavia,' though its authorship is uncertain and was once mistakenly attributed to Seneca.

How did tragedy evolve during the Renaissance?

During the Renaissance, classical Greek and Roman tragedies, particularly those of Seneca, were rediscovered and adapted by humanist scholars. This led to the writing of new tragedies in vernacular languages, influencing the development of dramatic forms in Italy, France, and Britain.

What were the key influences on Renaissance French tragedy?

Renaissance French tragedy was primarily influenced by the works of Seneca and the critical precepts of Horace and Aristotle, as interpreted by commentators like Scaliger and Castelvetro. Plots were drawn from classical authors, the Bible, and contemporary events, with Greek tragedians becoming increasingly important models later in the period.

How did British tragedy in the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods differ from classical models?

British tragedy during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras diverged from classical models by often disregarding the unities of time, place, and action. These plays frequently blended high and low characters, incorporated tragicomic elements, and explored psychological complexity and moral ambiguity, reflecting the turbulent times.

Name some prominent English Renaissance tragedians and their notable works.

Key English Renaissance tragedians include William Shakespeare, whose tragedies include 'Hamlet,' 'King Lear,' and 'Macbeth'; Christopher Marlowe, known for 'The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus' and 'Tamburlaine the Great'; and John Webster, author of 'The Duchess of Malfi' and 'The White Devil.'

What is domestic tragedy, and how does it contrast with classical tragedy?

Domestic tragedy is a subgenre where the main characters are ordinary middle-class or working-class individuals, unlike the kings and aristocrats typically featured in classical tragedy. This focus on common people and their personal struggles, rather than state affairs, marked a significant shift in the genre.

What themes are commonly explored in domestic tragedy?

Domestic tragedy often delves into themes such as wrongful convictions, poverty, addiction, alcoholism, debt, structural abuse, child abuse, crime, domestic violence, social shunning, depression, and loneliness. These themes resonate with the relatable experiences of ordinary people.

How did opera emerge in relation to tragedy?

The development of opera in Italy, particularly through the efforts of Jacopo Peri and his contemporaries, was an attempt to recreate ancient Greek tragedy. They believed that the Greeks performed their tragedies entirely through song, leading to the creation of this new musical genre that blended drama and music.

What was the concept of 'Gesamtkunstwerk' in relation to tragedy?

Richard Wagner's concept of 'Gesamtkunstwerk,' meaning 'integrated work of art,' aimed to revive the ideal of Greek tragedy by blending all the arts—music, drama, poetry, and visual arts—in service of the drama. This was seen as a return to the holistic artistic experience of ancient tragedy.

What were the defining characteristics of French Neo-classical tragedy, as exemplified by Corneille and Racine?

French Neo-classical tragedy, particularly in the works of Corneille and Racine, focused on noble characters and affairs of state. Corneille's tragedies sometimes had happy endings and redefined tragedy as dealing with state matters rather than solely focusing on emotional catharsis. Racine's tragedies concentrated on intense emotional conflicts and psychological dilemmas within a small group of characters.

How did Joanna Baillie propose to revolutionize tragedy?

Joanna Baillie, in her 'Series of Plays on the Passions,' aimed to revolutionize theatre by focusing on the 'unveiling of the human mind under the dominion of those strong and fixed passions.' She sought to trace the progression of these passions, showing how they could be combated or how their unchecked growth leads to misery.

What is bourgeois tragedy, and what are its origins?

Bourgeois tragedy, known in German as 'bürgerliches Trauerspiel,' emerged in 18th-century Europe during the Enlightenment. It is characterized by its focus on ordinary citizens as protagonists, moving away from the classical emphasis on nobility. George Lillo's 'The London Merchant' and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's 'Miss Sara Sampson' are considered early examples.

How has the definition of tragedy evolved in modern literature, according to Arthur Miller?

Arthur Miller, in his essay 'Tragedy and the Common Man,' argued that the definition of tragedy had broadened beyond Aristotle's requirement for noble protagonists. He contended that tragedy could also depict ordinary people in domestic settings, thus validating domestic tragedies.

What is George Steiner's perspective on the existence of tragedy in contemporary times?

George Steiner, in 'The Death of Tragedy,' expressed skepticism about the continued existence of tragedy in its classical forms. He suggested that Shakespeare's dramas, while rich, were a 'rejection' of the absolute tragic model, leaning towards tragi-comic and 'realistic' criteria due to their encompassing nature.

According to Oscar Mandel, what are the two primary ways to define tragedy?

Oscar Mandel identified two main approaches to defining tragedy: the 'derivative' way, which sees tragedy as an expression of an ordering of the world, and the 'substantive' way, which focuses on the elements within the artwork itself that create that ordering. He further categorized substantive definitions by formal elements, situation, ethical direction, or emotional effect.

What are the key elements of Aristotle's definition of tragedy?

Aristotle defined tragedy as an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of significant magnitude. It must be performed, not narrated, and use language enriched with artistic ornaments. Crucially, it should evoke pity and fear to achieve catharsis, or emotional cleansing, in the audience.

What did Aristotle consider the 'structure of the best tragedy'?

Aristotle believed the structure of the best tragedy should be complex, not simple. This complexity should involve incidents that arouse fear and pity, which he considered peculiar to the tragic form. The reversal of fortune, driven by the hero's hamartia, was also key.

What is 'hamartia' in the context of Aristotelian tragedy?

Hamartia, in Aristotelian tragedy, is often translated as a character flaw or a mistake. It refers to the error or frailty that leads the tragic hero to their downfall, distinguishing it from misfortune caused by external factors.

What is 'anagnorisis' in Aristotelian tragedy?

Anagnorisis, in Aristotle's Poetics, refers to the moment of recognition or revelation. It is the change from ignorance to awareness, often concerning a bond of love or hate, that the tragic hero experiences, contributing to their understanding of their fate.

What distinction did Aristotle make between tragedy and misadventure?

Aristotle distinguished tragedy from misadventure by the cause of the downfall. For a tragedy, the reversal of fortune must stem from the hero's own actions or errors (hamartia). If the downfall is caused by an external factor, such as fate or divine intervention, Aristotle termed it a misadventure.

What are Aristotle's four species of tragedy?

Aristotle identified four species of tragedy: 1. Complex, involving peripety (reversal) and discovery (anagnorisis); 2. Suffering, focusing on tragic events like those of Ajax and Ixion; 3. Character, dealing with moral or ethical character, seen in figures like Peleus; and 4. Spectacle, characterized by horror or shocking themes, exemplified by the Graeae or Prometheus.

How did G.W.F. Hegel theorize the difference between Greek and Shakespearean tragedy?

Hegel viewed Greek tragedy as a conflict between two equally justified ethical forces, represented by characters. In contrast, he saw Shakespearean tragedy as a conflict between the individual personality and external circumstances, where characters act out of subjective desires and passions to assert their individuality against a hostile world.

What is the significance of the image of Heer Ranjha in the context of Punjabi folklore and literature?

The image depicts the classical Punjabi tragedy of Heer Ranjha, a story central to Punjabi folklore. Waris Shah's epic rendition of this tragedy is considered a masterpiece of Punjabi literature.

What was the role of the 'ekkyklema' in ancient Greek theatre?

The 'ekkyklema' was a wheeled platform used in ancient Greek theatre to display the results of events that occurred off-stage, such as violent deaths. It allowed the audience to see the consequences of actions, enhancing the emotional impact, as seen in the aftermath of Agamemnon's murder in Aeschylus' 'Oresteia.'

What is the meaning of the phrase 'deus ex machina'?

'Deus ex machina,' Latin for 'god from the machine,' refers to a plot device where a seemingly unsolvable problem is suddenly resolved by the unexpected intervention of a new event, character, or ability. It originated from the use of a crane ('mechane') in Greek theatre to lower gods onto the stage.

How did Renaissance tragedies differ from medieval theatrical forms?

Medieval theatre was dominated by mystery plays, morality plays, and miracle plays. Renaissance tragedy, influenced by classical Greek and Roman models, shifted towards secular themes, classical subjects, and more complex dramatic structures, often written in verse.

What is 'tragic collision' as described by A.C. Bradley in relation to Hegel's theory?

A.C. Bradley termed Hegel's concept of tragedy the 'tragic collision.' This refers to the fundamental conflict within tragedy, which Hegel saw as a clash between opposing ethical forces in Greek tragedy and a conflict between individual personality and external circumstances in Shakespearean tragedy.

What was the primary focus of tragedy in the works of Jean Racine?

Jean Racine's tragedies, inspired by Greek myths and classical playwrights like Euripides and Sophocles, focused on the intense emotional conflicts and psychological dilemmas of a small group of noble characters. He was particularly noted for his skillful representation of pathos and amorous passion.

What is the 'tragedy of circumstance'?

A tragedy of circumstance is a dramatic form where the protagonist's tragic fate is determined by their birth or situation, rather than their own choices or flaws. This subgenre explores the consequences of inherited positions, particularly for royalty, marking a shift from earlier tragedies focused on personal error.

What is the 'tragedy of miscalculation'?

A tragedy of miscalculation occurs when a protagonist's error in judgment or a significant mistake leads to tragic consequences. This type of tragedy highlights how even well-intentioned actions, if flawed, can result in a catastrophic downfall.

What is the significance of 'The London Merchant' by George Lillo?

'The London Merchant; or, the History of George Barnwell' by George Lillo is considered the first true bourgeois tragedy in English. It marked a departure from classical tragedy by focusing on an ordinary citizen protagonist and exploring themes relevant to the middle class.

How did Aristotle's definition of tragedy influence later theatrical thought?

Aristotle's definition of tragedy, emphasizing a noble protagonist, a reversal of fortune due to hamartia, and the evocation of pity and fear leading to catharsis, profoundly influenced Western theatrical theory for centuries. While later movements challenged or adapted these elements, his framework remained a central point of reference.

What is the 'tragic hero' according to Aristotelian theory?

According to Aristotle, the tragic hero is a character of noble stature whose downfall is brought about not by malice or depravity, but by a specific error or frailty (hamartia). This hero's reversal of fortune, ideally from good to bad, evokes pity and fear in the audience.

What is the relationship between tragedy and 'mono no aware'?

While not explicitly stated as a direct relationship in the provided text, 'mono no aware' is listed under themes related to death and mortality in art. It is a Japanese concept referring to the pathos of things or the awareness of impermanence, which can be a component of tragic sentiment.

Tragedy Wiki: Tragedy Unveiled: The Anatomy of Dramatic Suffering

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Essence of Tragedy

Human Suffering

Tragedy is a genre of drama fundamentally rooted in human suffering. It centers on the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character or a cast of characters, often leading to their downfall.

The Cathartic Response

Traditionally, the primary aim of tragedy is to evoke catharsis in the audience—a complex emotional release, often described as a "pain that awakens pleasure." This paradoxical response is central to the genre's enduring impact.

Cultural Significance

While various cultures have developed forms that provoke cathartic responses, the term "tragedy" most often refers to a specific tradition within Western civilization. This tradition has played a unique and vital role in shaping cultural identity and historical continuity.

Origin and Etymology

The Word "Tragedy"

The term "tragedy" originates from the Ancient Greek word tragoidia, believed to derive from tragos ("he-goat") and ode ("singing, ode"). This nomenclature likely stems from historical practices where a goat served as a prize in competitions or was part of a ritualistic sacrifice.

Dionysian Roots

According to Aristotle's seminal work, the Poetics, tragedy evolved from the improvisational performances of choral dithyrambs—hymns sung and danced in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility. This suggests an origin deeply connected to religious ritual and ecstatic expression.

Hellenic Tragedy

Athenian Theatre

Athenian tragedy, the earliest surviving form, was an integral part of the city-state's theatrical culture. Emerging in the 6th century BCE and flourishing in the 5th century BCE, it was a dance-drama performed annually at festivals honoring Dionysus.

Surviving Masterpieces

While numerous tragedies were performed, only a fraction of works from playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides survive. These playwrights, along with their contemporaries, established the foundational structures and thematic concerns of the genre.

The surviving corpus includes works by:

Aeschylus: Known for the Oresteia trilogy.
Sophocles: Renowned for plays like Oedipus Rex and Antigone.
Euripides: Author of Medea, The Bacchae, and Hippolytus.

These playwrights often presented their works in tetralogies, comprising three tragedies and a satyr play.

Theatrical Devices

Ancient Greek theatre employed innovative devices such as the ekkyklema (a platform to reveal the aftermath of off-stage events) and the mechane (a crane for divine entrances, giving rise to the term "deus ex machina"). These elements enhanced dramatic impact and narrative clarity.

Roman Tragedy

Adaptation and Influence

Following Rome's expansion, Greek tragedy was adopted and adapted. Early Roman dramatists like Livius Andronicus and Gnaeus Naevius began writing tragedies, laying the groundwork for Roman literature.

Seneca's Legacy

The most significant surviving Roman tragedies are those attributed to the Stoic philosopher Seneca the Younger. His nine plays, often adapted from Greek originals, are characterized by their rhetorical intensity, focus on violence, moralizing, and exploration of themes like revenge and the supernatural.

Seneca's tragedies, likely intended for recitation rather than full stage performance, emphasized:

Detailed accounts of horrific deeds and graphic violence.
Extended, reflective soliloquies.
Obtrusive moralizing and bombastic rhetoric.
Frequent appearances of ghosts and supernatural elements.
Exploration of themes such as revenge, the occult, and suicide.

Renaissance Revival

Rediscovery of Classics

During the Renaissance, classical Greek and Roman drama was rediscovered. Humanists and poets translated and adapted ancient tragedies, reintroducing their forms and themes to European theatre after centuries of relative obscurity.

British Tragedy

British tragedy, particularly during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras, diverged from strict classical models. It often defied the unities of time, place, and action, incorporating elements of comedy and exploring psychological depth and political complexity.

Prominent figures include:

William Shakespeare: Master of tragedy with works like Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, and Romeo and Juliet, known for integrating philosophical and psychological depth.
Christopher Marlowe: Famous for Doctor Faustus and Tamburlaine the Great, blending medieval morality with Renaissance humanism.
John Webster: Author of The Duchess of Malfi and The White Devil, known for their dark themes and intense drama.

Italian and Continental Forms

In Italy, playwrights like Gian Giorgio Trissino and Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai adapted classical tragedies into the vernacular, adhering closely to classical rules. This period also saw the emergence of opera, inspired by the ancient Greek ideal of sung drama.

Neoclassic Tragedy

French Tradition

In 17th-century France, playwrights like Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine developed a highly stylized form of tragedy. Influenced by classical precepts and Seneca, their works emphasized adherence to dramatic rules, noble characters, and the exploration of intense emotional conflicts.

Rules and Ideals

Corneille redefined tragedy, suggesting that noble characters and affairs of state were paramount, and that happy endings were not antithetical to the genre. Racine, conversely, focused on condensed plots, psychological intensity, and the representation of pathos and amorous passion.

Corneille's theoretical framework for tragedy included:

Noble Characters: Tragedy should feature characters of high status.
Affairs of State: Plots should revolve around significant events like wars or dynastic matters.
Moral Imperatives: Plays should not reward evil or degrade nobility, aligning with contemporary moral codes.
Flexible Catharsis: While Aristotle's catharsis was an ideal, plays could be considered tragic even without a strictly purgative emotional outcome.

Bourgeois Tragedy

The Ordinary Protagonist

Emerging in 18th-century Europe, bourgeois tragedy shifted focus from royalty and aristocracy to ordinary citizens—merchants and common people. This marked a significant departure from classical and neoclassical ideals, which favored noble protagonists.

Reflecting Modern Life

This subgenre explored themes relevant to the burgeoning middle class, such as poverty, addiction, domestic violence, and social alienation. Plays like George Lillo's The London Merchant exemplified this new direction, making tragedy more accessible and relatable.

Bourgeois tragedy often delved into:

Economic hardship and debt.
Social exclusion and shunning.
Family conflict and abuse.
Personal struggles with addiction and mental health.
The consequences of moral failings in everyday life.

Modern Development

Redefining Tragedy

Modern interpretations have broadened the definition of tragedy, challenging Aristotle's notion that it must involve figures of high status. Playwrights like Arthur Miller argued for the tragic potential of ordinary individuals, reflecting contemporary societal shifts.

Critical Perspectives

Critics like George Steiner have questioned the continued existence of tragedy in its classical form, suggesting that modern works, including Shakespeare's, represent a departure from the absolute tragic model towards more hybrid, "realistic" forms that encompass a wider spectrum of human experience.

Arthur Miller: Championed the "common man" as a valid tragic protagonist in his essay "Tragedy and the Common Man."
Howard Barker: Advocated for a "rebirth of tragedy," asserting its power to equip audiences against deception.
George Steiner: In The Death of Tragedy, he analyzed the evolution of the genre and questioned its contemporary relevance, viewing Shakespeare's works as a "rejection" of the classical model.

Theoretical Frameworks

Aristotle's Poetics

Aristotle defined tragedy as an imitation of a serious, complete action of significant magnitude, employing enriched language and enacted rather than narrated. It aims to effect catharsis through pity and fear, typically involving a reversal of fortune (peripeteia) caused by the protagonist's error (hamartia).

Aristotle's key concepts include:

Magnitude and Completeness: A tragedy must have a clear beginning, middle, and end.
Peripeteia: A reversal of fortune, ideally from good to bad.
Hamartia: A tragic error or flaw, not necessarily a moral failing, but a mistake leading to downfall.
Anagnorisis: A moment of recognition or discovery by the protagonist.
Catharsis: The purging of emotions, specifically pity and fear, experienced by the audience.
Four Species: Complex (with peripeteia and discovery), Suffering, Character, and Spectacle.

Hegel's Dialectic

G.W.F. Hegel viewed tragedy as a conflict of ethical forces. In Greek tragedy, this conflict is between equally justified ethical powers. In Shakespearean tragedy, it shifts to a conflict within the individual, where subjective passions and personality clash with external circumstances, leading to self-destruction.

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References

The theory that Prometheus Bound was not written by Aeschylus adds a fourth, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives.

See Horace, Epistulae, II, 3, 220: "Carmine qui tragico vilem certavit ob hircum".

Taxidou 2004, p. 104: "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct".

Headington, Westbrook & Barfoot 1991, p. 22.

Headington, Westbrook & Barfoot 1991, p. 178.

George Steiner, The Death of Tragedy [1961] (Oxford University Press, 1980; Yale University Press, 1996), p. xiii.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Tragedy Wikipedia page

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This is not professional advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional literary analysis, theatrical consultation, or academic research. Always refer to primary sources and consult with qualified experts for in-depth study.

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Tragedy Unveiled

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Essence of Tragedy 🎭

💔 Human Suffering

✨ The Cathartic Response

🌍 Cultural Significance

Origin and Etymology 🐐

🗣️ The Word "Tragedy"

🎶 Dionysian Roots

Hellenic Tragedy 🏛️

🎭 Athenian Theatre

📜 Surviving Masterpieces

⚙️ Theatrical Devices

Roman Tragedy 📜

🏛️ Adaptation and Influence

🗣️ Seneca's Legacy

Renaissance Revival ⚜️

📖 Rediscovery of Classics

🇬🇧 British Tragedy

🇮🇹 Italian and Continental Forms

Neoclassic Tragedy 👑

🇫🇷 French Tradition

⚖️ Rules and Ideals

Bourgeois Tragedy 🏠

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 The Ordinary Protagonist

🌍 Reflecting Modern Life

Modern Development 💡

🗣️ Redefining Tragedy

🤔 Critical Perspectives

Theoretical Frameworks 🧠

⚖️ Aristotle's Poetics

💡 Hegel's Dialectic

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Essence of Tragedy

Human Suffering

The Cathartic Response

Cultural Significance

Origin and Etymology

The Word "Tragedy"

Dionysian Roots

Hellenic Tragedy

Athenian Theatre

Surviving Masterpieces

Theatrical Devices

Roman Tragedy

Adaptation and Influence

Seneca's Legacy

Renaissance Revival

Rediscovery of Classics

British Tragedy

Italian and Continental Forms

Neoclassic Tragedy

French Tradition

Rules and Ideals

Bourgeois Tragedy

The Ordinary Protagonist

Reflecting Modern Life

Modern Development

Redefining Tragedy

Critical Perspectives

Theoretical Frameworks

Aristotle's Poetics

Hegel's Dialectic

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice